The influence of Stoicism on Roman legal thought existed as well. The Roman legal system under the influence of Stoicism placed much more emphasis on civic duty, social responsibility, the importance of good law, and the equal basic rights of all human beings. Question #4 : Please describe St. Augustine s background and his conception of the two city states. Also, explain Plato s influence on Augustine and provide your opinion of the philosophy of the most renowned of the early Church fathers. Augustine was born at Thagaste , a small town in the Roman province of Numidia in North Africa. His mother was a devout Christian, but his father never embraced the Christian faith. He received a classical education that both schooled him in Latin literature and enabled him to escape from his provincial upbringing. Trained at Carthage in rhetoric , which was a requisite for a legal or political career in the Roman empire, he became a teacher of rhetoric in Carthage, in Rome, and finally in Milan, a seat of imperial government at the time. At Milan, in 386, Augustine underwent religious conversion. He retired from his public position, received baptism from Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, and soon returned to North Africa. In 391, he was ordained to the priesthood in Hippo Regius and five years later he became bishop.After the fall of Rome and the pagan attacks that blamed Christians for it, St. Augustine set out to meet the challenge. In 413 he started the City of God which was completed in 426, twenty-two books later. In his books, St. Augustine divides the human race into two parts, the one consisting of those who live according to man, the other of those who live according to God. And these we also mystically call the two cities, or the two communities of men, of which the one is predestined to reign eternally with God, and the other to suffer eternal punishment with the devil. (E & E pgs 117-118) According to St. Augustine, there exists two cities: the Earthly and the Heavenly city. two cities have been formed by two loves : the earthly by the love of self, even to the contempt of God; the heavenly by the love of God, even to the contempt of self. (E.E. pg 117) The heavenly city symbolically represents the church, and the Earthly city represents the state. St. Augustine sees value and function in the state in terms of justice and reason. But the earthly city, which shall not be everlasting (for it will no longer be a ciy when it has been committed to the extreme penalty), has its good in this world, and rejoices in it with such joy as such things can afford. (E.E. pg 118). The state provides social tranquility here on earth, but it is not as important as the tranquility that awaits those in the heavenly city. He does not see the Earthly city as evil. In fact, he believes that the state is necessary for providing earthly tranquility. However, St. Augustine believes that this earthly peace is not nearly as important as the peace that awaits those of the Earthly city. But the things which this city desires cannot justly be said to be evil, for it is itself, in its own kind, better than all other human good. (E.E. pg 119). The only real difference between these two cities is that the people of the Earthly city neglect the better things of the heavenly city, which are secured by eternal victory and peace never-ending, and so inordinately covet these present good things that they believe them to be the only desirable things, or love them better than those things which are believed to be better- if this is so, then it is necessary that misery follow and ever increase. (E.E. 119). Plato influenced St. Augustine, and can be seen in his writings. For example, Plato addresses the problem of the just society, that each individual has his own version of what is just. Plato writes that, But in reality justice, though evidently analogous t this principle, is not a matter of external behavior, but of the inward self and of attending to all that is, in the fullest sense, a man s proper concern… Justice is produced in the soul, like health in the body, by establishing the elements concerned in their natural relations of control and subordination… (E.E. pgs 43-44) St. Augustine agrees with Plato s idea that justice is an individual case and writes that, all men desire peace with their own circle whom they wish to govern as it suits themselves. For even those whom they make war against they wish to make their own, and impose on them the laws of their own peace. (E.E. pg 123)On the whole, I admire St. Augustine for his answer to the pagan charge that the fall of Rome was because of the Christians. I don t think anyone could have chosen a more tactical and impressive rebuttal than him. He felt that Rome fell because the people running Rome lived in the earthly city. That because the rulers ruled for themselves and not for God, that God punished them. And to write twenty-two books is simply amazing. I agree with St. Augustine on the slavery issue. St. Augustine felt that slavery is wrong, that God intended man to rule over the beasts, not for man to rule over fellow man. Slavery is a sin, and I agree with St. Augustine that every man in the eyes of God is equal, that all men are of the same blood. Question #5 : Please review the various conceptions of the proper role of the relationship between Church and State discussed in class. Write a short explanation for why you agree or disagree with the various conceptions. The issue of the relationship between Church and State has been a major issue that faced European man for centuries. Many theories and ideas have been presented, with logical and illogical ideals to support them. To this day it is still a topic of debate. Simplistically there exist four possibilities : State over Church, Church over State, an even division of Church and State, or a combination of Church and State together. The doctrine of the relationship of church and state has undergone, and is undergoing, constant modification. Its origins long predate the wars of religion.Plato and Aristotle argued that only through reason and through politics can truth be found. They preferred the State over religion. The Epicureans saw no use in religion, arguing that man s belief in gods arises from dreams and the realization that gods play no role in human affairs constitutes a human awakening. (Manning)Jesus Christ had made a clear focus on religion above politics when he said, My kingdom does not belong to this world. If my kingdom did belong to this world, my attendants would be fighting to keep me from being handed over to the Jews. But as it is, my kingdom is not here. (NAB pg 1163) Jesus also makes a call for a separation of Church and State when he says, Then repay to Caesar what belongs to Caesar and to God what belongs to God. (NAB pg 1126)Saint Augustine considered all earthly governments, regardless of their form, as representative of the fallen and imperfect “city of man or Earthly City. The state provided the “sword” to discipline sinful man through law and education. The church, for Augustine, represented the perfect and eternal “city of God,”, or Heavenly City, preserving the divine, otherworldly values of peace, hope, and charity. Church and state were separate but related: they occupied different realms and held different values, but both existed in this world. Not only does Augustine make the clear division of Church and State, he also states that only those in the Heavenly City shall be saved, thus preferring Church over State. He wrote, And therefore the wise men of the one city, living according to man, have sought for profit to their own bodies or souls, or both, and those who have known God glorified Him not as God, neither were thankful, but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened; professing themselves to be wise – that is, glorying in their own wisdom, and being possessed by pride – they became fools, and changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made like the corruptible man… (E.E. 117) Saint Thomas Aquinas defined the state as author and executor of human law, whose charge is the punishment of vice and encouragement of virtue. The church is the interpreter of divine law through natural law, of which human law is an inferior part.For Aquinas, the church properly advises the state on many matters, especially those relating to moral legislation. He said, The ministry of this kingdom of God is not in the hands of earthly kings, but of priests, and- above all – the chief priest, the successor of St. Peter, the Vicar of Christ, the Roman Pontiff, to whom all kings are to be subject as to Christ himself. (E.E. pg 137) Aquinas thus makes a blend of Church and State. Each serves its purpose, and both are needed. The Church acts as a guide for the State, allowing the State to make the correct decisions and to act according to the will of God. Again, Aquinas sees the Church superior to the State. Saint Paul viewed the State as an obstruction to the Church, and therefore the Church should be superior to the State. In one of many letters he wrote to the Philippines, he wrote, For many, as I have often told you and now tell you even in tears, conduct themselves as enemies of the cross of Christ. Their end is destruction. Their God is their stomach; their glory in their shame. Their minds are occupied with earthly things. But our citizenship is in heaven, and from it we also await a savior, the Lord Jesus Christ. (NAB pg 1290) He makes the rulers of the Earth and everything they have to offer insignificant to what awaits them in heaven, and therefore the State is not important when compared to the Church. Tertullian took a very radical view toward the relationship between the Church and State. He argued that the State was evil, and opposed to the ways of God. He stated, The fact that Christ rejected an earthly kingdom should be enough to convince you that all secular powers and dignities are not merely alien from, but hostile to, God. (Manning) He believed that Christianity and philosophy were irreconcilable, that heresies are the result of philosophy, and that there was the danger of a mottled Christianity of Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic elements. (E.E. pg 132)As a Christian, particularly a Roman Catholic, I agree with the idea of a clear separation of Church and State. I believe that the purpose of the state is to provide social order here on earth, and the purpose of the Church is to provide certain guidelines for people to follow in order to have a peaceful, enjoyable life. Christianity teaches morals and helps those who are confused. It gives people hope. The state provides a similar set of guidelines for people to follow in order to have a peaceful, enjoyable life. So to answer the question as to where the two stand, I would have to argue that they are both important and should be separated from each other. A person should have the right to decide whether or not to believe in an after life, how to live there lives, or how to go about doing things. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the State to insure that that right is not obstructed nor oppressed. History has shown us what happens when one is above the other. During the days before the fall of Rome, the State was above the Church. Rome was corrupt, destructive of other civilizations, and unmerciful. During the Middle Ages the Church took control, and learning and progress was slowed considerably. Thus, I would have to agree with Aquinas belief that through the guidance of the Church, the State can provide the necessities of man kind. In our own country people have the right to decide what religion to follow or to follow none at all, and it is working. Let the Pope handle spiritual matters and the President handle politics. It is very similar to the checks and balances theory. Only together can the progress of mankind go on. The Church guides the State, but never should one be superior to the other. A clear separation but compromise between the Church and State seems to me the best and safest route to take. Question#6 : Please describe the background of St. Thomas Aquinas and compare and contrast his views with those of Augustine. Discuss how Aquinas incorporates Aristotlianism into Catholicism. Saint Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican theologian, met the challenge posed to Christian faith by the philosophical achievements of the Greeks and Arabs. He effected a philosophical binding of faith and reason. Thomas d’Aquino, the son of a count, was born in his family’s castle at Roccasecca, central Italy, in 1224. At about the age of five, Thomas was placed by his parents in the Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino. His uncle had been abbot of the monastery, and his family had similar ambitions for Thomas. When Monte Cassino became the scene of a battle between papal and imperial troops Thomas withdrew and enrolled at the University of Naples. There he came into contact with members of the Dominican order and, against the violent opposition of his family, became a Dominican friar. He then went north to study at Paris and Cologne under Albertus Magnus. His Summa contra Gentiles was written in 1258-60, and his greatest work, the Summa Theologiae, occupied him from 1267 to 1273. Thomas also wrote a series of commentaries on Aristotle and the Bible. Unlike many theologians, he welcomed the Latin translation of Aristotle’s complete writings, although he opposed the radical advocates of Aristotelianism, the so-called Latin Aviarists. (GME Aquinas )The views of Saint Thomas Aquinas are both alike and different from those of Saint Augustine. Saint Augustine met the allegations and challenges of the pagans and concerned mostly with the view of Church and state as separate but related spheres: they occupied different realms and held different values, but both exist in this world. Saint Aquinas reconceptualized the relationship between faith and reason, and argued that man is a social animal and that the superior wisdom of the ruler makes legitimate his rulership. (E.E. pg ) Augustine s thought was that through faith one may attain an understanding. This concept is exposed when he said, Seek not to understand that you may believe, but believe that you may understand. (E.E. 132) He believed that reasoning originates in the act of faith. He also believed that because of Original Sin, no one can entirely govern his own motivation and that only the help of God’s Grace makes it possible for persons to will and to do good. (GME Augustine ). Saint Thomas Aquinas’ thought embodied the conviction that faith and reason are aspects of a single truth and cannot be in conflict with one another. According to Aquinas, people know something when its truth is either immediately evident to them or can be made evident by appeal to immediately evident truths. (GME Aquinas ). They believe something when they accept its truth on authority. Religious faith is the acceptance of truths on the authority of what God tells them. Despite the fact that this seems to make knowledge and faith two utterly distinct realms, Thomas held that some of the things God has revealed are in fact knowable. He called these “preambles of faith,” including among them the existence of God and certain of his attributes, the immortality of the human soul, and some moral principles. The rest of what has been revealed he called “mysteries of faith,” for example, the Trinity, the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ, the resurrection, and so on. He then argued that, if some of the things God has revealed can be known to be true, it is reasonable to accept the mysteries as true. (GME Aquinas ). Saint Thomas Aquinas incorporated Aristotlianism into Catholicism. For example, Aristotle classifies government into pure and perverted forms of government, and from that makes a choice of the best type based on that classification. He chose a monarchy as the best choice based on the fact that if a person is found to be preeminent in virtue, then that person is fit to rule. Aquinas also classifies government into good and bad types and agrees that monarchy is the best choice. However, he derives his preference for the monarchical form of government from his religious view of the world. (E.E. pg 139) Aristotle s philosophy that the end, or good, of humankind is not merely to live, but to lead a good, flourishing life that manifests the rational nature of humanity and thus satisfies human needs (GME Aristotle ) was incorporated by Aquinas and tied in with Christianity in his four forms doctrine of law. Aquinas distinguishes four forms of law : eternal law, natural law, divine law, and human law. The pursuit of happiness is a search for the good life, which is composed of virtuous actions and falls under the realm of divine law. Generosity consists in giving neither too little nor too much. Aristotle also describes intellectual virtue and moral virtue, which correspond to the soul, or as Aquinas classified it, part of the Eternal law. The effort to perform virtuous acts creates the desire to do the right thing for its own sake and also creates practical wisdom. Because human beings are not purely rational a flourishing, happy, human life demands the exercise of both the intellectual and the moral virtues, all of which are interpreted by Aquinas and classified accordingly.
1. (E.E.)Introduction to Political Thinkers William Ebenstien and Alan O. Ebenstien Harcourt Brace College Publishers 1992 by Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 2. (NAB) The New American Bible for Catholics World Catholic Press 1970 by the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine3. (Manning) Dr. Kerry James Manning4. (GME) Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia 1995 by Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.