Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 42 из 71)
| often | oftener more often |
As with adjectives, there is a small group of adverbs with comparatives and superlatives formed from different stems (suppletive forms). These comparatives and superlatives are identical with those for the corresponding adjectives and can be differentiated from the latter only syntactically.
 well badly little much far | - better - worse - less - more further | - best - worst - least - most - furthest - farthest |
Which do you like best?
This is least painful for you.
Either farther (farthest) or further (furthest) are used when speaking of places, directions, or distance:
He is too tired to walk any farther (further).
But only further (furthest) is used with the meaning more, later:
Don’t try my patience any further.
Most of the adverbs, however, stand outside the degrees of comparison:
pronominal adverbs denoting place and time
(here, somewhere, there, sometimes, when),
denoting manner
(somehow, thus), and
adverbs of manner denoting gradation
(minimally, optimally, proximally - ближе к центру).
§ 241. According to their meaning adverbs fall into many groups. Here are the main ones:
Adverbs of place: outside, there, in front, etc.
Adverbs of time include those denoting duration (long, continually), interval (all day), timing (yesterday, today, recently, lately, immediately, once, at once, now), frequency (often, now and then, occasionally). Several of them denote an indefinite time - soon, yet, always, already, never, ever.
Adverbs of manner: well, carefully, intentionally, silently, clearly, etc.
Adverbs of degree: thoroughly, very, much, completely, quite, rather, a lot, a little, a great deal, badly, greatly, hardly, barely, scarcely, narrowly, just, almost, mostly, enormously, largely, tremendously, keenly, somewhat, too, so, most, all but.
Among these some are synonymous (much, very), but their combinability is different. Thus much is used to modify verbs, nouns, statives and adjectives, and very is used with adjectives and adverbs in the positive and superlative degrees, whereas with comparatives only much is used:
| to travel much to be much improved much better much slower very much in love very much alive very much alike very much afraid | very nice very glad very slow very quickly |
With participles, however, both much and very may be used, often they go together:
much admired, very surprised, very much amused.
Among adverbs of degree there are many the meaning of which has become weakened and which are used as intensifiers, adding emotional colouring to the content of what is said. This group of adverbs is very difficult to define because adverbs of other semantic groups can occasionally function as intensifiers:
| awfully painful, very quiet, rather calm, most expensive, | terribly unjust, faintly uneasy, really pretty, positively wonderful, | extremely beautiful, too frightful, so nice, etc. |
Syntactic functions and patterns of combinability
§ 242. Adverbs may perform different functions, modifying different types of words, phrases, sentences. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas others may modify different words, for instance enough, which may be used in to work enough, not quickly enough, quick enough. The most typical function of the adverb is that of adverbial modifier.
The combinability and functions of the adverbs are as follows:
1. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of manner, place, time, degree to a finite or non-finite form of the verb:
He spoke aloud; I quite forgot about it; he spoke well.
Some adverbs of time though synonymous, are used in different syntactical patterns. Thus, already is used in affirmative sentences, and yet - in interrogative and negative sentences:
They have already finished.
They haven’t finished yet.
Have they finished yet?
However, already may occur in interrogative and negative sentences when there is an element of surprise or the question is suggestive, that is the speaker expects an affirmative answer.
Have they finished already? (The speaker is surprised at their having already finished.)
In the same way still, meaning “continuously, up to this moment”, is used in affirmative sentences and any more in negative sentences. If any more is used in a question, it implies that the speaker expects a negative answer.
He still works at the library.
He does not work there any more.
Does he take music lessons any more? - No, he doesn’t.
2. Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another adverb. Usually the modifying adverb is an intensifier:
very, rather, awfully, so, terribly, extremely, most, utterly, unusually, delightfully, unbelievably,
amazingly, strikingly, highly, that, etc.
The same applies to composite adverbs, such as
kind of, sort of, a good bit of, a lot of, a hell of, a great deal of, etc.
She is terribly awkward; they are very happy: Meg is clever enough; you speak so slowly; they settled in a rather quiet street; the boy is unbelievably fat; she was strikingly handsome; we did it sort of proudly; quite definitely, too much, right there, a great deal too much.
Some adverbs - still, yet, far, much, any combine with comparative adjectives: much worse, not any better, still greater, etc.
He could not speak any plainer.
You could do it far more neatly.
She is much wittier than her friend.
Comparative adverbs are used in clauses of proportional agreement, that is, parallel clauses in which qualities or actions denoted in them increase or decrease at an equal rate. (See Syntax § 177)
The longer I think about it the less I understand your reasons.
To express the idea that a quality or action decreases or increases at an even rate the comparative may be repeated, the two identical forms being connected by and:
He ran faster and faster.
3. There are some adverbs which may modify nouns or words of nominal character, functioning as attribute, as in:
the way ahead, the trip abroad, the journey home, his return home, the sentence above (below), my friend
here, the house opposite, the day before, etc.
A few adverbs can premodify nouns without losing their adverbial character:
the then president, in after years, the above sentence, the now generation.
Their combinability with prepositional phrases can be illustrated by the following:
right up to the ceiling.
§ 243. As adverbs modify words of different classes, they accordingly occupy different positions in the sentence. In comparison with other words, adverbs may be considered as the most movable words. However, adverbs are not identical in their ability to be moved to another position in the structure. Thus, adverbs of manner and degree are very closely attached to the word they modify and cannot be moved away from it. He sings well – is the only possible arrangement of the three words, unless the change of position is caused by inversion and a general shift of the communicative focus: Only well does he sing (он поет только хорошо). If such an adverb is put in other positions this may result in a change of meaning in which case it is no longer an adverb (it has already been mentioned that adverbs are often defined by position rather than form): well, he sings when nobody is in.
If the predicate is an analytical form adverbs of frequency and indefinite time are usually placed between its parts:
Have you ever seen him?
You are always laughing at me.
Adverbs of degree usually premodify adjectives or verbs:
awfully painful, terribly unjust, really pretty, so nice, to thoroughly understand, etc.
The most mobile are adverbs of time and place, which can occupy several positions without any change in their meaning, as in:
Usually he sings well.
He usually sings well.
He sings well usually.
The initial position of the adverb of manner always makes it emphatic.
Proudly he showed his diploma to his parents.
Carefully he signed his name.
In these sentences, despite the detachment of the adverbial modifier, its connection with the verb is evident (showed proudly, signed carefully).
Note:
Care should be taken not to confuse adverbs of manner and modal words, which may have the same word-form and occur in the same position. The only guide in these cases is punctuation and the relation between the words:
Naturally I wanted him to answer - modal word.
I wanted him to answer naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live naturally - adverb.
They wanted to live, naturally - modal word.
§ 244. Modal words express the speaker’'s attitude to what his utterance denotes. The speaker’s judgement may be of different kinds, that is, the speaker may express various modal meanings.
Modal words are an invariable part of speech. They may refer to a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence. Their syntactical function is that of a parenthesis, they may also be a sentence in themselves, in which case they are used to answer a general question:
Will you help me? Certainly.
Precisely this.
Except this man, of course.
Semantically modal words fall into three groups, denoting:
1. Certainty/doubt (certainly, of course, indeed, surely, decidedly, really, definitely, naturally, no doubt,
etc.).
Certainly, it was astonishing that she should be preoccupied with her schemes for the welfare of
Constance.
Of course, it would have been different if they had married.
In answers the meaning of these words is weakened.
2. Supposition (perhaps, maybe, probably, obviously, possibly, evidently, apparently, etc.).
Manson’s nature was extraordinarily intense. Probably he derived this from his mother.
You have come quickly to a resolution. But perhaps you have been considering this question for a long
time?
Obviously you didn’t read it.
3. Estimate proper (good/bad) – (luckily, fortunately, happily, unfortunately, unluckily, etc.).
Fortunately there were few people at the morning surgery.
Unhappily a terrible storm broke out before the travellers had reached their destination.
§ 245. A preposition is a function word indicating a relation between two notional words. Its semantic significance becomes evident when different prepositions are used with one and the same word, as in:
to go to the park, to go across the park, to go round the park, to go out of the park, to go through the
park, etc.
A preposition may altogether change the meaning of the verb:
he shot the officer (he aimed at him and hit him),
he shot at the officer (he aimed at him but probably missed).
Although the tradition of differentiating prepositions from other word classes (conjunctions, and in some cases adverbs) is well established, it is not always easy to draw the border-line; nearly all one-word prepositions can also function as adverbs or as conjunctions, their status being determined only syntactically. A few words - after, before, since, for (with the change of meaning), behind - may function not only as adverbs, adverbial postpositions, or conjunctions, but also as prepositions. Compare the following groups of sentences:
They sailed up (postposition).
They sailed up the river (preposition).
Everybody was up at the sound of the bell (adverb).
The milk boiled over (postposition).
He presided over the meeting (preposition).
I can’t tolerate such men as him (preposition).
As he was passing the door he turned back (conjunction).
No one saw him but me (preposition).
But no one saw him (conjunction).
He is stronger than me (preposition).
He is stronger than I am (conjunction).
§ 246. Most of the common English prepositions are simple in structure:
out, in, for, on, about, but (в значении кроме, исключая), against.
Derived prepositions are formed from other words, mainly participles:
excepting, concerning, considering, following, including, during, depending, granted, past, except.
There are also many compound prepositions:
within, outside, upon, onto, throughout, alongside, wherewith, whereof, whereupon, herein, hereafter, withall.
Composite or phrasal prepositions include a word of another class and one or two prepositions, as in by virtue of, but for, because of, by means of, instead of, in lieu of, prior to, on account of, abreast of, thanks to, with reference to, opposite to, in front of, for the sake of, in view of, in spite of, in preference to, in unison with, for the sake of, except for, due to, in addition to, with regard to, on behalf of, in line with, at variance with.