Some and any, indicating both indefinite qualities and quantities, differ in meaning: some has assertive force, that is presupposes the presence of some quality or quantity. It generally corresponds to the Russian некоторый, какой-то, некоторое количество. Any has a non-assertive force, that is, does not presuppose the presence of any quality or quantity, and generally corresponds to the Russian какой-нибудь, какой-либо, сколько-нибудь.
The difference in meaning predetermines their use. Some is commonly used in affirmative and imperative sentences.
There are some apples on the table. Give him some milk.
Any is commonly used:
1) In negative sentences (with negatives not, no, never, neither... nor), in sentences with incomplete negatives (hardly, little, few, least, etc.), and with implied negatives (fail, prevent, reluctant, hard, difficult).
I don’t like any of them. She has never lasted any wine.
I hardly knew any of those present.
He failed to find any of them.
2) In questions, mostly general:
Did you see any of them? Is there any bread there?
3) In conditional clauses:
If any person learns about it, you will have to leave.
4) In comparative phrases:
He did more for me than any of you.
However, some not any, is used in interrogative sentences when their basic meaning is assertive and the speaker suggests that a certain state of affairs exists, as in:
Did you see some new English books on the shelf?
(The speaker suggests that there are new English books on the shelf and the addressee had only to look on them).
When will you have some time to show me your presents?
Some, not any, is preferable when making invitations or offers if it presupposes an acceptance:
Will you have some tea? Would you like to see some of my pictures?
The same holds true for negative sentences and conditional clauses with positive orientation.
She would not find some letters she had left on the table.
If you bring her some flowers, she'll be only too glad.
On the other hand any can be found in affirmative sentences if used with the meaning of no matter what, no matter who, as in: I am so hungry. I’ll eat any piece of stale bread. Any of them will do. (Я съем любой черствый кусок хлеба, любой из них подойдет).
Syntactically some and any can be used as subject, object, or attribute.
The compound pronouns of this subclass (something, somebody, someone, anything, anybody, anyone) are used only as noun-pronouns. Those ending in -thing imply non-persons, and those ending in -body imply persons. The difference in their communicative value is the same as between some and any. The pronouns with the element some- are used in affirmative and conditional sentences, or in interrogative, negative and conditional sentences if they are assertive:
Something unexpected always happened to him.
Что-нибудь неожиданное всегда случалось с ним.
Let somebody bring me a glass of water.
Пусть кто-нибудь принесет мне стакан воды.
Did somebody called me up?
Мне кто-то звонил?
The pronouns beginning with any are used in negative and interrogative sentences, in conditional clauses, in comparative phrases and in affirmative sentences meaning no matter what, no matter who.
I don’t see anyone here.
Я никого здесь не вижу.
If anyone calls, ask them to wait a moment.
Если кто-нибудь зайдет, попросите подождать минуту.
The pronoun one is indefinite-personal. It indicates people in general implying inclusion of the speaker, much in the same way as the indefinite-personal we, you, they do:
One is used as subject and attribute (in the genitive case)
One never knows what may happen.
Никогда не знаешь, что может случиться.
The use of one is rather formal. In everyday speech we or you is preferable:
You never know what may happen.
§ 222. Negative pronouns as the term implies render the general meaning of the sentence negative.
They are: no, none, nothing, nobody, no one, neither. No is used only as an adjective-pronoun, none, nothing, nobody, no one as noun-pronouns, neither may be used as both adjective-pronoun and noun-pronoun.
Unlike Russian, in sentences with negative pronouns no other negative words can be used:
Я ему ничего не сказал. - 1 told him nothing.
Only two negative pronouns have the category of case: nobody – nobody’s, no one - no one’s. The other pronouns of this subclass have no grammatical categories.
No and none refer to all nouns denoting both persons and things, nothing refers to things, whereas nobody and no one refer to persons only. Nobody means to offend you. The pronoun neither refers to two persons or things and therefore correlates only with count nouns. It has a disjunctive force (ни тот, ни другой).
No trees could be seen. I will give you no trouble.
No means not ... a when premodifying count nouns are in the singular.
I have no pen. = I haven’t a pen with me. (ни одной ручки)
None refers to many people, therefore it agrees with the predicate verb in the plural.
None were present at the meeting.
I remember none of the stories.
Nothing happened. I could see nothing there.
Nobody answered. (Not anybody) No one stirred. (Not anyone)
Neither came back. Neither book interested me.
When neither is used as subject, the predicate verb is in the singular:
Neither was present.
Nobody and no one cannot be postmodified by an of-phrase. Only none can be used in this case.
None of my relatives came to our wedding.
§ 223. Detaching pronouns indicate the detachment of some object from other objects of the same class. There are only two pronouns of this subclass - other, another. They are used both as noun-pronouns and as adjective-pronouns.
One of the girls was pretty, while the other was terribly plain.
He gulped one cup, then another.
I live on the other side.
Both other and another have the category of case (other – other’s, another – another’s), but only other has the category of number (other -others).
The pronoun other has dual reference, personal and non-personal, and correlates with all subclasses of nouns in the singular and in the plural:
Other times have come, other people are of importance.
Unlike the majority of pronouns, other (both as a noun-pronoun and as an adjective-pronoun) can be preceded by the definite article and other determiners.
The other tree was half-withered.
Then he gave me his other hand.
That other question quite upset me.
Show me some other pictures.
His sister’s other child was only five then.
In these sentences other is used as an attribute. The attributive function can also be performed by the noun-pronoun other in the genitive case, as in: The other’s mouth twitched where other's stands for some noun from the previous context.
The pronoun another also has a dual reference, but it correlates only with count nouns in the singular.
Will you have another cup?
Then another runner came into view.
Another has two meanings:
1) a different one -
I don’t very much like this dress, will you show me another.
2) one more, one in addition to the one or ones mentioned before –
She asked me a question, then another.
Detaching pronouns can be used as subject, object, adverbial modifier and attribute.
§ 224. Universal pronouns indicate all objects (persons and non-persons) as one whole or any representative of the group separately. They are: all, both, each, every, everything, everybody, everyone, either.
Of these only everybody and everyone have the category of case (everybody - everybody's, everyone – everyone’s), others have no grammatical categories.
These pronouns, as can be seen from the definition, differ in their reference.
Some universal pronouns (all, everybody) have always collective or all-embracing reference. They correspond to the Russian все, весь, целый, всё as in:
All were present.
Все присутствовали.
All night long she sat by the window.
Всю ночь напролет она просидела у окна.
I haven’t read all the book.
Я не прочел всей книги.
Everything looks so beautiful in spring.
Все так красиво весной.
She is everything to me.
Она для меня всё.
Two pronouns (both, either) indicate a group comprising two persons or non-persons treated either as a whole (both) or as consisting of individual objects in a group of two (either - каждый из двух). In accordance with their reference both takes a predicate-verb in the plural and either - in the singular. The article is usually placed after both.
| Both have come in time. Both the windows were shut. Either of these will do. | - Оба пришли вовремя. - Оба окна были закрыты. - Любой из них подойдет. |
Some pronouns (every, each, either) always have individual reference (каждый, другой), therefore they agree with the predicate-verb in the singular.
She searched every corner, but found nothing.
Each of them keeps silent.
Two pronouns (everybody, everyone) may have both collective and individual reference. In the first case it corresponds to the Russian все, in the second case to the Russian каждый. This or that reference is generally marked not so much by the predicate-verb, as by correlation with personal or possessive pronouns.
Everybody did as he thought best.
Everybody was eager to give his evidence.
Tell everybody that they are to wait a bit.
Everybody lowered their eyes.
The women stood by the gates and everyone told her own story.
§ 225. Interrogative pronouns indicate persons or non-persons or tlieir properties as unknown to the speaker and requiring to be named in the answer. Accordingly they are used to form special (or pronominal) questions.
This subclass of pronouns comprises who, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever. Of these only the pronoun who has the category of case — the objective case is whom. However there is a strong tendency in colloquial English to use who instead of whom, especially with prepositions.
Who did you get it from?
Who have you been with?
Who do you mean?
instead of Whom did you get it from? (or from whom), Whom have you been with? (or with whom). Whom do you mean?
Who, whose, whoever have personal reference, what, whatever have non-personal reference, and which may have both personal and non-personal reference.
The number of the persons implied by who can be derived from the context. Accordingly the predicate-verb may be in the singular or in the plural.
Who has come? It’s my brother.
Who are to come today?
When who is used as predicative, the link verb naturally agrees with the subject:
Who is she? Who are you? Who were those people?
The pronouns what may be both a noun-pronoun (что?) and an adjective-pronoun (каков? какой?). It has mostly a non-personal reference, as in:
What has happened?
What is his name?
What did you say?
What are you looking at?
What book are you reading?
When what is used as subject it is, unlike who, always used with the predicate verb in the singular.
What is there on the table? - Some books and papers.
However when what is used as a predicative the link verb agrees with the subject.
What are their names?
What and who can both be used as predicatives in questions concerning persons. In this case they convey different meanings. Who-questions inquire about the person's name or parentage, while what-questions inquire about person’s occupation, profession, rank, etc.
“Who are you?” — “I am your sister’s son.”
“Who is he?” – “He is Mr. Smith.”
“What is she?”- “She is a painter”.
Which is both a noun-pronoun and an adjective-pronoun. It may have either personal or non-personal reference.
Which of these men is your husband?
Which colour do you prefer?
Which always implies a choice among a certain limited group of persons or things, corresponding to the Russian который, какой из. The same meaning may be rendered by what, but what has always indefinite reference, whereas which has definite reference. Thus the following two questions.
Which books would you like to buy?
What books would you like to buy?
differ in meaning, as the first implies that one is to choose from a given number of books and that one knows what kind of books they are. When answering this question one may either specify the books or just point to them saying “these”. The second sentence implies that one is to choose from an indefinite number of books, from books in general. This sentence corresponds to the Russian Какие (какого жанра и т. п.) книги Вы хотели бы купить? When answering this question, one simply has to specify them.
The pronouns whoever, whatever, whichever are noun-pronouns. Whoever has personal reference, whatever has non-personal reference, whichever may have either personal or non-personal one. When used in questions they express indignation or surprise.
Whoever could have done it?
Whichever was it?
Whatever are you trying to do?
Whatever is he talking about?
§ 226. Conjunctive pronouns (whom, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever) are identical with the interrogative pronouns as to their morphological, referential and syntactical characteristics. They refer to persons and non-persons. The difference between the two subclasses lies in that the conjunctive pronouns, along with their syntactical function in the clause, connect subordinate clauses to the main clause. They are used to connect subject, predicative, and some adverbial clauses, or rather to indicate the subordinate status of these clauses, as the sentence may begin with the clause they introduce.