Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 29 из 71)
It is used in questions (and offers) in the 1st person singular and plural. Such sentences are translated into Russian by the infinitive.
“Shall I get you a chair?” – “Yes, please.” Принести вам стул? - Пожалуйста.
Shall we begin? - Yes, let’s. (Нам) начинать? - Давайте.
Shall I read? - Please, do. Мне читать? - Читайте, пожалуйста.
The above three meanings are closely connected with the old meaning of obligation which is at present not common in spoken English and which is normally confined to formal or archaic style (official regulations or other documents).
The Society’s nominating committee shall nominate the person for the office of president (...должны выставить кандидата...).
This meaning is found in subordinate clauses.
It has been decided that the nomination shall not he opposed.
§ 163. Like shall, will is not a purely modal verb. It almost always combines its modal meaning with its functioning as an auxiliary verb expressing futurity. Will has two forms: will for the present tense and would for the past tense. Thus will and would are looked upon as forms of the same verb, although in a few cases their meanings differ.
I. Will combined with the non-perfect infinitive expresses:
1. Willingness, intention, determination. It is often rendered into Russian by непременно, обязательно, охотно. Would in this meaning shows reference to the past.
I will write as soon as I can. (Я непременно напишу, как только смогу.)
I will be there to help. (Я обязательно там буду и помогу.)
I can and will learn it. (Я могу выучить и обязательно это выучу.)
When he was young, he was so poor that he would do anything to earn some money. (... он согласен был
на любую работу, чтоб подзаработать.)
This meaning is often found in conditional sentences.
If you will help me we can finish by six.
Если вы согласитесь мне помочь, мы можем кончить к 6 часам.
If you will wait for me I’ll be very grateful.
When used in the negative it denotes a refusal to do something.
I won’t accept your offer (I refuse to ...).
They wouldn’t listen to me (they refused to listen to me).
He wouldn’t answer my question (he refused to answer ...).
2. A polite request or an offer. This meaning occurs only in questions.
Will you pass the salt, please?
Will you haw some tea?
In comparison with will the form would renders a greater degree of politeness.
Would you please pass the salt?
Would you please lend me your pencil?
It is still more polite to use the combinations: Would you mind (+ -ing form), Would you be so kind as to...
Would you be so kind as to lend me your book?
3. A command (in military contexts it is a strict command).
Officers will report for duty at 06.00.
You will do exactly as I say.
You will go in there and tell him that the game is up.
An impatient command can begin with will you.
Will you be quiet! - Замолчишь, ли ты наконец?
Will you in the tag after a negative command can tone down the command (and is pronounced with the falling tone).
Don’t be late, will you?
But after a positive command will you has a rising intonation and expresses impatience.
Sit down, will you?
Shut the door, will you?
Shut the door, won’t you?
Would is never used in this meaning.
4. Insistence, resistence. Will and would are stressed when used in this sense.
He will try to mend it himself (he insists on mending it himself).
With reference to inanimate objects will and would show that a thing fails to perform its function. It occurs in negative statements and corresponds to the Russian никак не.
| The door will not open. The orange won’t peel. The engine wouldn’t start. The wound wouldn’t heal. | - Дверь никак не открывается. - Апельсин никак не очистить. - Мотор никак не заводился - Рана никак не заживала. |
5. Inevitability, characteristic behaviour, quality, or something naturally expected.
| What will be will be. Accidents will happen. Boys will be boys. Truth will out. | - Чему быть, того не миновать. - Несчастные случаи неизбежны (несчастный случай может произойти с каждым). - Мальчишки всегда остаются мальчишками. - Истины не утаишь. |
This sort of inevitability or prediction often occurs in sentences with conditional clauses.
If people study they will learn. (If people study they learn)
If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red (it turns red).
This meaning cannot be rendered in Russian by any analogous modal verb.
Oil will float on water.
Children will often be full of life when their parents are tired.
This car will hold six people comfortably.
That’s exactly like Jocelyn - she would lose the key.
6. Disapproval of something expected. In this meaning only would is used. It is found mainly in responses. It corresponds to the Russian этого и следовало ожидать, на него похоже.
“I know she attended the place.”
“Oh, yes, she would.” - Конечно, что еще можно ожидать.
“Hе refused to interfere.” “He would.” — На него похоже.
“I don’t like it and I don’t visit the place.” “No, you wouldn’t.” (I didn’t expect you would.)
You would be late! - Конечно, ты опять опоздал.
You would forget. - Конечно же, вы забыли.
II. Will/would combined with different forms of the infinitive can express prediction, a certainty about the present or the future (in a similar way as must).
| This will be just what she wants. That will be my wife. This will be our train. That would be he! John will have arrived by now (by tomorrow). | - Это, очевидно, то, чего она хочет. - Это, конечно, моя жена. - Это, наверное, наш поезд. - Это, наверное, он. - Джон наверняка уже приедет к этому времени (к завтрашнему дню). |
In the latter case must is impossible as with a perfect infinitive it has a reference to the past.
| That would be in 1910, I think. Why are you asking him? Не wouldn’t know anything about it. Who is the man? You wouldn’t know him. | - Я думаю, это, наверное, было в 1910 году. - Зачем вы его спрашиваете? - Вряд ли он что-либо об этом знает. - Вряд ли вы его знаете. |
Note the expression:
You would, would you? - Ax, ты так!
§ 164. The modal verb dare may be defective or regular.
As a defective verb dare has two forms: dare for the present tense and dared for the past tense. It is used chiefly in interrogative and negative sentences. It has the meaning - to have the courage or independence to do something, to venture.
How dare he speak to you like that? (I wonder at such impudence.)
How dare you sneak into my room like this?
He daren’t write anything in case it isn't good (he hasn’t got the courage).
Dare you ask him? (Are you brave enough to ask him?)
That’s as much as I dare spend on it.
As a regular verb dare has a limited paradigm of finite forms and no verbals. It may have two meanings:
1. To venture, to have the courage or impudence (like the defective dare). In this sense it is used mainly in negative statements.
He didn’t dare to stop me (he didn’t have the courage).
She doesn’t dare to answer.
Don’t you dare to touch me.
2. To challenge, to defy.
I dared him to jump (I challenged him to do it).
I dare you to say this straight to her face. - Попробуй, скажи ей это прямо в лицо.
Note the following combinations with the modal verb dare.
I dare say — I suppose, no doubt.
I dare say you are right. - Очень возможно, что вы правы.
I dare say he will come later. - Полагаю (пожалуй), он придет позже.
§ 165. The noun denotes thingness in a general sense. Thus nouns name things (book, table), living beings (man, tiger), places (valley, London, England), materials (iron, oil), processes (life, laughter), states (sleep, consciousness), abstract notions (socialism, joy) and qualities (kindness, courage).
§ 166. Semantically all nouns fall into proper nouns and common nouns.
§ 167. Proper nouns are geographical names (New York, the Thames, Asia, the Alps), names of individual (unique) persons (John, Byron, Brown), names of the months and the days of the week (January, Sunday), names of planets (the Moon, the Sun, the Earth), names of ships, hotels, clubs (Shepherd's Hotel), of buildings, streets, parks, bridges (Buckingham Palace, Trafalgar Square, Regent Street, Charing Cross Road, Piccadilly Circus, Kensington Gardens, Hyde Park, Waterloo Bridge), of institutions, organizations, magazines and newspapers (the United Nations, the New Times, the Guardian). They are written with capitals.
§ 168. Common nouns can be classified into nouns denoting objects that can be counted and those that cannot. So there are count and non-count and collective common nouns. The former are inflected for number, whereas the latter are not. Further distinction is into concrete nouns, abstract nouns and nouns of material.
Semantic classification of English nouns is shown in the following scheme:
Concrete nouns semantically fall into three subclasses.
1. Nouns denoting living beings - persons and animals:
boy, girl, dog, cat.
2. Nouns denoting inanimate objects:
table, chair.
3. Collective (собирательные) nouns denoting a group of persons:
family, crowd.
There are some nouns which may be classified both as count and non-count. They often have considerable difference in meaning in the two classes.
| Count nouns | |
| He used to read an evening paper. She was a beauty. They hoped to have pleasant experiences. I saw him in a group of youths. | They wrappped up the present in brown paper. Beauty is to be admired. He has a great deal of experience. Vie was speaking with the enthusiasm of youth. |
A noun of material used as a count noun undergoes a semantic change so as to denote: kind of, type of: He found her drinking Chinese tea, which she didn't like — but what could one do, other teas were common. The same can be seen in the title A. Conan Doyle devised for a story "Upon the Distinction Between the Ashes of the Various Tobaccos".
§ 169. According to their morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple, derived, and compound.
Simple nouns consist of only one root-morpheme: dog, chair, room, roof, leaf.
Derived nouns (derivatives) are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes (prefixes or suffixes).
The main noun-forming suffixes are those forming abstract nouns and those forming concrete, personal nouns.
| Abstract nouns | Concrete nouns |
| -age: leakage, vicarage -al: betrayal, portrayal, refusal -ancy/-ency: vacancy, tendency -dom:freedom kingdom -hood: brotherhood, childhood -ing: meaning, cleaning -ion/~sion/-tion/-ation: operation, tension, examination -ism: darvinism, patriotism -ment: agreement, unemployment -ness: darkness, weakness -ship: friendship, membership -ty: cruelty, sanity, banality -th: growth, strength -y: difficulty, honesty | -(i)an: physician, Parisian, republican -ant/-ent: assistant, student, informant -arian: vegetarian -ее: refugee, employee, payee -er: teacher, worker, singer -ician: musician, politician -ist: socialist, artist -or: visitor, actor -let: booklet, leaflet -ess: actress, tigress, waitress -ine: heroine -ix: proprietrix -ette: usherette The four suffixes -ess, -ine, -ette are feminine. |
Sometimes nouns formed by abstract noun suffixes may come to denote concrete things or persons as in translation (a process and its result), beauty (may denote an abstract notion and a beautiful woman).