Грамматика английского языка Морфология. Синтаксис (стр. 11 из 71)
However the conjunctions when and if may be used to open object clauses, then the future in the past forms can be used if required by the sense:
She didn’t know when I should return.
I doubted if we should see him at all.
§ 55. The future in the past indefinite is used to denote simple facts, habitual actions and successions of actions in the future viewed from the past:
He said he would soon fake up French.
I knew she would still see him as often as she could.
He said they would start at dawn, reach the river in the afternoon and in an hour or two would proceed up
the road towards the cliffs.
The sun was setting. In an hour it would be quite dark.
§ 56. The future in the past continuous is used to denote an action in progress at a certain moment of time, or an action that is expected by the speaker as a result of a naturally developing situation, both referring to the future considered as such at a certain moment of time in the past:
And she thought, poor soul, that at this time next Sunday she would be approaching her beloved Paris.
Then she mentioned in a rather matter-of-fact way, that Jack would be calling the very next day.
§ 57. The future in the past perfect is used to denote an action completed before a certain moment of time in the future treated as such at some moment in the past:
He realized that he would have accomplished his task long before midnight.
In subordinate adverbial clauses of time and condition described above (§ 54) the past perfect is used to denote the same kind of action:
He said he would do it after he had seen me.
§ 58. The future in the past perfect continuous denotes an action in progress that begins before a certain moment of time in the future viewed from the past and goes on up to that moment and into it. It is an exceptionally rare form, which is hardly ever found in any text.
He said lie would have been living here for ten years next year.
§ 59. Though the future in the past form refer the actions they denote to the future (viewed from the past), their actual time reference is broader than that of the future, for the actions thus expressed may refer not only to the actual future but also to the actual present or the past:
He said he would call tomorrow, and I’m going to stay in till he comes. (actual future)
I said I should come today, and so I’m here! (actual present)
I’m so upset. He said he would come the day before yesterday, but he didn’t. (actual past)
§ 60. The rules of the sequence of tenses are one of the peculiarities of English. The sequence of tenses is a dependence of the tense form of the predicate in a subordinate clause on the tense form of the predicate in its principal clause. The rules mainly concern object clauses depending on principal clauses with the predicate verb in one of the past tenses, though it holds true also for some other subordinate clauses (such as subject, predicative and appositive ones).
The rules are as follows:
1) a present (or future) tense in the principal clause may be followed by any tense in the subordinate object clause:
| 1. | I know I say I am just saying I have always known I’ve just been telling her I shall tell her | (that) | he plays tennis well. he is playing tennis in the park. he has played two games today. he has been playing tennis since morning. |
| he played tennis yesterday. he was playing tennis when the storm began. he had played two games before the storm began. he had been playing tennis for some time when the storm began. | |||
| he will play tennis in summer. he will be playing tennis all day long. he will have played some games before you return. he will have been playing tennis for some time before you come. |
2) a past tense in the principal clause is followed by a past tense in the subordinate object clause.
| I knew I said I was just saying I had never known She had been telling | (that) | he played tennis well. he was playing tennis in the park. he had played two games that day. he had been playing tennis since morning. he had played tennis the day before. he had been playing when the storm began. he had played two games before the storm. he had been playing tennis for some time before the storm. he would play tennis in summer. he would be playing tennis all day long. he would have played some games by the time you returned. he would have been playing tennis for more than an hour before you came. |
Thus the past indefinite or the past continuous tense in the subordinate clause denotes an action, simultaneous with that of the pripcipal clause. They are translated into Russian by the present tense.
For a moment she did not know where she was.
Joanna noticed suddenly that I was not listening.
Had she not hinted what was troubling her?
He had thought it was his own son.
People had been saying he was a madman.
My first thought was where they were now.
The past perfect or the past perfect continuous in the subordinate clause denotes an action prior to that of the principal clause. Both of these forms are translated into Russian by the past tense.
I perceived that something had happened.
I wasn’t going to tell her that Megan had rung me up.
I knew well enough what she had been doing.
Up to that moment I had not realized what they had been trying to prove.
The fact was that his sister Rose had married beneath her.
She had a feeling that she had been deceived.
The future in the past tenses in the subordinate clause denote an action following that of the principal clause.
I hoped she would soon be better.
I told Caroline that I should be dining at Fernley.
What she would say or do did not bother him.
The fact remained that none of us would see them till late at night.
The sudden thought that Nell would not come at all flashed through his head.
The fact that the action of the subordinate clause follows that of the action in the principal clause may be also indicated by other means.
She said she was going to see him the same night.
§ 61. The rules of the sequence of tenses concern subordinate clauses dependent not only on the predicate of the principal clause but also on any part expressed by a verb or verbal:
I received from her a letter saying that she was passing through Paris and would like to have a chat with
me.
She smiled again, sure that I should come up.
She turned her head slightly, well aware that he was watching her.
In complex sentences containing more than two subordinate clauses the choice of the tense form for each of them depends on the tense form of the clause to which it is subordinated:
I guess you told him where they had come from and why they were hiding.
As far as I can see he did not realize that very soon all would be over.
Besides the complex sentences described above the rules of the sequence of tenses are also found in all types of clauses and simple sentences reproducing inner speech (conventional direct speech).
§ 62. As already stated the rules of the sequence of tenses concern object, subject and predicative clauses. In all the other clauses (attributive and adverbial ones) the use of tenses depends wholly on the sense to be conveyed:
Clyde thought of all the young and thoughtless company of which he had been a part.
He lifted the heavy latch which held the large iron gate in place.
She only liked men who are good-looking.
I was thinking of the day which will come only too soon.
He was standing where the creek turns sharply to the east.
At the moment he was standing where he always had stood, on the rug before the living-room fire.
She felt gay as he had promised to take her to the pictures.
You see, I could not follow them as I’m rather shy.
Mr. Direck’s broken wrist healed sooner than he desired.
He knew the job better than I do.
She had been a wife for even less time than you have.
In my youth life was not the same as it is now.
§ 63. The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed in the following cases:
1) when the subordinate clause describes the so-called general truth, or something which the speaker thinks to be one.
Up to then Roy never realized that our Solar system is but a tiny speck in the infinite Universe.
The other day I read in a book that everything alive consists mostly of water.
She was very young and - and ignorant of what life really is.
2) when the subordinate clause describes actions referring to the actual present, future, or past time, which usually occurs in dialogues or in newspaper, radio, or TV reports.
Margaret, I was saying to you - and I beg you to listen to me – that as far as I have known Mrs. Erlynne,
she has conducted herself well.
“Before the flier crashed,” the operator said ten minutes later, “he gave me information. He told me there
are still a few men alive in these mountains.”
I did not know he will be here tomorrow.
3) when the predicate verb of the subordinate clause is one of the modal verbs having no past tense forms.
She said I must come at once.
I thought you should come too.
§ 64. Voice is the grammatical category of the verb denoting the relationship between the action expressed by the verb and the person or non-person denoted by the subject of the sentence. There are two main voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. There are also other voices which embrace a very limited number of verbs: reflexive (wash oneself), reciprocal (embrace one another), medial (the book reads well).
The active voice indicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the subject, thus the subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action:
We help our friends. - Мы помогаем нашим друзьям.
The passive voice indicates that the action is directed towards the subject. Here the subject expresses a person or non-person who or which is the receiver of the action. It does not act, but is acted upon and therefore affected by the action of the verb.
| We were helped by our friends in our work. | В работе нам помогли наши друзья. |
The contrast between the two voices can be seen from the following examples:
| I had asked no questions, of course; but then, on the other hand, I had been asked none. They saw but were not seen. | Я не задавал вопросов, но, с другой стороны, и мне не задавали вопросов. Они видели, но их не видели. |
The difference in the meaning of the forms helped - were helped, had asked - had been asked, saw - was seen illustrates the morphological contrast between the active and the passive voice.
Of all the verb categories voice is most closely related to the syntax of the sentence. The interrelation of the active and the passive voice on the syntactical level can be presented in the following way:
| Subject | Predicate Verb | Object | |||||
| John | helped | Pete | |||||
| Pete | was helped | by John | |||||
A sentence containing a verb in the passive voice is called a passive construction, and a sentence containing a verb in the active voice is called an active construction, especially when opposed to the passive construction.
The subject of an active construction denotes the agent (doer) of the action, which may be a living being, or any source of the action (a thing, a natural phenomenon, an abstract notion).
The subject of a passive construction has the meaning of the receiver of the action, that is a person or non-person affected by the action.
The object of an active construction denotes the receiver of the action, whereas the object of the passive construction is the agent of the action. The latter is introduced by the preposition by. If it is not the agent but the instrument, it is introduced by the preposition with.
The cup was broken by Jim.
It was broken with a hammer.
Formation and the system of forms in the passive voice
§ 65. The active voice has no special means of formation. It is recognized by contrast with the passive voice, which is composed of the auxiliary verb to be and participle II. Thus the passive verb forms are analytical, the tense of the auxiliary verb to be varies according to the sense. The notional verb (participle II) remains unchanged and provides the whole analytical form with its passive meaning.
The category of voice applies to the whole system of English verb forms, both finite and non-finite.
Table II
The voice forms of the verb
 Perfect | Tense | The active voice | The Passive Voice | |||||||||
| Aspect | Present | Past | Future | Present | Past | Future | ||||||
| Non-perfect | Common | takes | took | will take | is taken | was taken | will be taken | |||||
| Continuous | is taking | was taking | will be taking | is being taken | was being taken | ----------- | ||||||
| Perfect | Common | has taken | had taken | will have taken | has been taken | had been taken | will have been taken | |||||
| Continuous | has been taking | had been taking | will have been taking | |||||||||
| ------------- | ----------- | ----------- | ||||||||||
Note: