2. Hybrids. These words were formed by addition of Russian suffixes, prefixes and endings to the foreign root. In this way the meaning of the word often changes. For example: “бузить” (busy – беспокойный, суетливый).
3. Calques. Word of foreign origin using with the preservation of its phonetic and graphic shape. Theyare: “код”, “вирус”, “клуб”, “диск”, “сленг”, “бакс”, “ди-джей”.
4. Half-calques. Words which after being grammatically assimilated were put under the grammatical rules of Russian language (suffixation).for example: “драйв” – “драйва” (drive) “давнонебылотакогодрайва” - в значенииэнергетика, кураж.
5. Exotisms. Such words are characterized by specific national customs or manners of foreign nations and are used to show the atypical for Russian reality notions. The distinctive feature of them is that they have no equivalent or synonyms in Russian. For example: “чипсы” (chips), “хот-дог” (hot-dog), “чизбургер” (cheeseburger).
6. Foreign lingual spots. Such words usually have lexical equivalents, but they stylistically differ from these equivalents and are used in the sphere of communication as expressive means to add a peculiar emotiveness to the speech. For example: “о’кей” – O.k!; “вау” – Wow!
7. Composites. Words which were made by means of two or more English lexical units. For example: “видео-салон” –a special apartment for watching movies , “секонд-хэнд” – a shop that sells the goods which have already been used, “лаунж-бар” – a comfortable coctail bar.
8. Jargonisms. These are words appeared in consequence of some sounds distortion. For example: “мыло” – e-mail, “крезанутый, шизанутый” – crazy.
The joining of borrowings into Russian language increased especially in 90 years of XX century. The tendency of expansion foreign words could be observed in almost every sphere of life. It occupied the leading position in political sphere of the country getting accustomed with new concepts: president, inauguration, speaker, impeachment, electorate and others. Such words began to form the layer of new social and political vocabulary. This group is typical for the periodical press and then to the publicistic-functional style.
If to speak about the time period there are two major types of borrowings. The first type is presented by old borrowings which were actualized during last years with respect to the political and economical systems modification. The second type includes the number of loan-words which were made directly during last years.
The most typical example of the first type is the word “президент” – president. As far back as the Council of People’s Commissars took place, M.S.Gorbachiov rectified one of the representatives’ error when he called him with the term “господинпрезидент”. He asked the representative to be more accurate next time as this term “президент” – is the different post and it refers to the other reality and so on. The adopted word “президент” was popular that time as the nomination of foreign political and social realities (for example: “президентСША”, “президентФранции”). Since that time the political situation in the country has been changed and so extralinguistic factors have modified the function of the word “президент” into actual term appropriate for our modern lifestyle (for example: “ПрезидентРоссийскойфедерации”, “ПрезидентРеспубликиКазахстан”). Such words as “электорат” and “легитимный” can be observed in the same way as they received a wide spreading in Russian language in the last decade of XX century within the process of actualization of the respective notions.
Hence foreign terminology became predominant in the most progressive spheres of science, techniques, politics and financial activities. Such words as “бестселлер”, “вестерн”, “триллер[5]”, “хит” have broken into the sphere of culture. Our everyday speech has keenly begun to adopt new notions with its foreign nominations – “сникерс”, “твикс”, “гамбургер” and others.
Time will show us if these borrowings can change, enrich or deteriorate the image of Russian language. Time will define the future destiny of each loan-word which is to be finally adopted or rejected by linguistic flavor of the epoch. Russian language has a long history of adopting words dictated by the necessity to perceive useful information in the form of new words drawing on international experience. Such words are named in many ways, most commonly: borrowings and loan-words. The process of new words adoption is determined by nations’ contacts which generate a necessity of new concepts and ideas nomination. Such words are usually the results of some nation’s innovation in any sphere of science or techniques. They may also appear as a consecutive result of snobbery, fashion. Nevertheless, there are essentially linguistic reasons: for instance, the necessity to express polysemantic Russian words by means of foreign word or to widen the expressive means of a language, etc.
For those who are fond of sports such new notions appeared: “виндсерфинг”, “армрестлинг”, “фристайл”, “скейтборд”, “кикбоксинг”, “файтер”, “овертайм”, “гол”, “хоккей”, “футбол”, “баскетбол” and even the word “спорт”.
In the sphere of non-manufacturing business many new notions appeared: “презентация”, “номинация”, “видео”, “шоу”, “хит”, “дискотека”, “диск-жокей” (ди-джей) and many others.
Loan-words usually refer to the layer of bookish words and special terminology and are used mainly in bookish speech genre and in the scientific or technical articles. At last time, the main source of linguistic stuff became contemporary mass media.
Modern life is hardly possible without information. The mass media plays an important role in our life. Millions of copies of newspapers are printed in our country every day. The role of the press can hardly be overestimated, particularly at present. It keeps you to be informed in the latest news, different events, home and foreign affairs, news of culture, science and engineering development. While reading newspapers or watching TV every person is confronted with a great number of borrowed words. As to the rule words occur in the newspaper pages and magazines can be divided into three groups:
1. Words which have synonyms in Russian:
For example: “бренд” the synonym is “торговаямарка”.
2. Words which have no equivalents in Russian:
Forexample: “спортсмен”, “футбол”, “проблема”.
3. Words which are printed in newspapers in English:
For example: “non-stop”
1.3 Assimilation of new words
All words getting from one language (from which the word is borrowed- Source language) into another (language that adopts a word – Target language) come through the first stage of assimilation. On this stage words are still connected with the reality that created them. Also when the word hasn’t got yet acclimatized in the target language it can have variants of pronunciation and spelling; for example: “доллар”, “доллер”, “долар” (Eng. “dollar”)[6]
The characteristic features of these lexical units at the survey period are their mass character, novelty and uniformity against the source language. The overwhelming majority of new words are to be borrowed from English language. The sphere where loan-words usually assimilate is quite specific. First of all, it is a “professional terminology” of any sphere specialists’ (computer engineering, financing activities, trade business, sports) and also spheres of politics, art, fashion, music, dancing and others.
Total computerization has leaded to the appearance, in Russian language and especially in the youth midst, a peculiar computerese jargon. It is obvious, that all innovations are held inside the system of the language and are formed up by means of Russian language grammatical rules. Consequently, the users of this jargon, aimed at making their speech distinctive and colorful can not manage without normal Russian language and rules mentioned above. There are a great number of computerese jargonisms which were changed or purposely mangled. English verb “to crack” (раскалывать) was changed into “крекнуть” or in humorous form “крякнуть”, a verb “to hack” (кромсать, разбивать) – became “хакнуть” with the help of Russian suffix “-ну”, which serves to denote a momentary action (that is to do something once; for example: “стукнуть” – to knock once and “стучать” – to knock during some time). By the way, there is no category of such kind in English, but in Russian language it is very common. Two ways of reproduction of one English word “game” (игра) have resulted into two varieties of its handing over:
1) After the way of writing:
“гамесы” that is “игры” (games, plural form);
2) After the way of pronunciation:
“геймер” that is “игрок” (player, a person).
On the whole, English suffix “-er” turned out to be very customary for denomination of any kind figures; for example: “юзер”, “дилер”, “киллер”. Nowadays labour-market becomes wider by means of new professions which come from the most developed countries. There is an interesting and a very up-to-date profession called “фрилансер” (from English freelancer – “free lance”, a person working out of stuff). This nomination refers to the number of words which have never existed in Russian language. So that mass media as the most sensitive organ of modern society tries to introduce us with such notions:
«…но в душе уже тогда знала, что стану фрилансером…»[7]
A lot of words like “компьютер”, “дисплей”[8], “файл”, “интерфейс”, “принтер”, “сканер”, “ноутбук”, “браузер”, “сайт”, “провайдер” and many others are reflections of new lifestyle generated by total computerization.
On the whole, computerese jargon is very similar to a general jargon (Jargon – is a speech of any social or professional group which contains a large number of terms and expressions peculiar to only such group, including imitation or relative words.)[9] and is developing within its rules. Research workers of Russian language strive for fixing novelties emerging in a system of language. Special dictionaries of neologisms serve to this problem realization. There are annual and anniversary dictionaries were observations about borrowings are collected together. It is significant that neologisms are new words which have not yet became day-to-day objects or concepts or corresponding items or notions. They are to be generated by two ways: firstly, neologisms appear on the original base of a language and secondly, some notions come from one language to another in one of the forms of borrowings.
Gradually foreign term gets assimilated due to its frequent usage in spoken language and in written form. Its morphological shape acquires stable form and as a result the adaptation, according to the norms of language, occurs. On this stage of foreign word assimilation in the sphere of native speakers’ popular etymology begins its operation. When a foreign word considered being incomprehensible people usually make an effort to fill its sound form with the contents close and most easily understood to the users of borrowing language. For example: the word “пиджак”. When it was just borrowed from English “pea-jacket” it sounded as “спинжак” in respect to the Russian notion “спина”.
And the last stage of foreign word penetration is striking root, when the word becomes widely used in the vocabulary system of native speakers and completely adapts within the grammatical rules of this language. From then on the word is included into all processes that occur with other words of the word-stock: it can produce words of the same root, abbreviations, acquire new nuances of definition. For example the English word “попса” that is popular music, pop music. This word is very frequent in usage, so it produced a lot of word-forms and combinations: “популярный”, “поп-культура”, “попсовый” and “поп-звезда”.
Sometimes words of English origin in Russian language can be defined by the ending:
- with the ending “-ер” or “-ор” is presents the largest group: “бартер”, “блейзер”, “брокер”, “ваучер”, “гамбургер”, “спонсор”, “компьютер”, “триллер”, “инвестор”;
- with the ending “-инг”, stress is placed on the first syllable: “брифинг”, “лизинг”, “рейтинг”, “серфинг”, “холдинг”;
- with the ending “-мент”, always trisyllable or tetrasyllable nouns: “импичмент”, “истеблишмент”, “менеджмент”;
- ending with a vowel sound: “лобби”, “шоу”, “ноу-хау”.
1.4 Stresses in loan-words
One of the most important aspects in the process of borrowing is placing stresses. In most cases a stress, correspond to the original language is the same in its borrowed variant. There are a lot of examples: “менеджмент”, “дефолт”, “спикер”, “сайт”, “инвестор” and so on. Unstable character of stresses in loan-words is inevitable; it proves that borrowed words come into cooperation with Russian vocabulary and gradually assimilate with it becoming a system-defined phenomenon. Nevertheless, a great number of new words which came from English language do not reveal unstable character of stresses. The exception is the word “маркетинг” (in English [`mɑːkɪtɪŋ]) where the stress can change its position from the first syllable to the following one.
II. Loan words in English language
Contemporary English language with its specific sound structure, grammatical order and lexis appears before us as the product of long-lasting historical development. Within this process English language was exposed to a many-sided modifications determined by different reasons. Over the history of the language a lot of considerable changes, rapid or more gradual, were made in the areas of sound structure, grammatical order and vocabulary. In most cases it happened by virtue of its internal evolution and sometimes, particularly in its lexical structure, under the influence connected with the historical fortune of English nation. Such changes make an influence on every aspect of linguistic structure but affects differently on each of them.
2.1 Original English vocabulary
It turned up that the vocabulary of a language is to be found in the condition of persistent modification. Such mobility as well as changeability is conditioned by the fact that a language and first of all its vocabulary are directly connected with manufacturing and other social human activities.
It is reasonable that, in order to fulfill its fundamental function – to be the primary means of communication, the language’s word-stock have to react quickly on every modification in all spheres of human activity, reflecting and fixing new concepts and notions.
The vocabulary of modern English is undoubtedly richer then the Old English one. This enrichment of English language proceeded due to its inner resources – wordbuilding, affixation and reformation of definitions as well as over the process of borrowing foreign words.
There are a lot of events which have effected on the process of English vocabulary formation; such as acceptance of Christianity (which pushed English nation into contact with Latin civilization), Scandinavian and Norse conquests (after which English vocabulary have lost a portion of its original lexis, including words of everyday usage), centennial war, the growth of bourgeoisie, the Renaissance, the rise of English nautical dominion, colonial usurpations, the development of trade, industry, science and literature, the development of self-consciousness of the working class and finally the first and the second world wars. As a result the lexis of modern English vocabulary presents the mixture of different elements, including only 30% of originally English words. This circumstance gives occasion to many research workers to exaggerate the significance of borrowings and to reckon English language in a German-Romanic group of languages and not just Germanic. They usually point out the compound character of English lexis as the most significant peculiarity and bring the whole English lexicology to the problem of borrowings. Nevertheless, the majority of borrowed words are perceived by people in contemporary language as English words, whatever real origin they have.