The less common suffixes are the following:
| -fold-like-most-way(s) | twofold, manifoldwarlikeinnermost, outermostlongways, sideways |
Compound adverbs are formed of two stems: sometimes, somewhere, somehow, someplace, nowhere, everywhere, anyway, downstairs, etc. There are fewer than twenty of these in common use.
Composite phrasal adverbs consist of two or more word-forms, as a great deal, a little bit, far enough, now and then, from time to time, sort of, kind of, a hell of, a lot of, a great deal of, at least, at most, at last, to and fro, upside down. Such adverbs are lexically and grammatically indivisible and form a single idea.
Considered in their structure, composite phrasal adverbs may be classified as follows [30, 164]:
1) preposition + noun: at hand, at home, by heart, on horseback, on foot, in turn, to date;
2) noun + preposition + noun: arm in arm, day by day, day after day, day to day, face to face, word for word, year by year;
3) preposition + substantivised adjective: at last, at first, at large, in large, in full, in quiet, in short, in vain, of late, of old;
4) preposition + verbal noun made through conversion: at a guess, at a run, in a rush, on the move, on the run;
5) preposition + numeral: at first, at once, at one, by twos;
6) coordinate adverbs: by and by, on and off (= off and on), on and on;
7) pronoun + adjective (or participle): all right, all told, O. K. (all correct);
8) preposition + pronoun: after all, in all, at all.
In point of fact most adverbs of that kind may be reasonably referred to as grammatical idioms [30, 165]. This can be seen, for instance, in the unusual absence of the article before their noun components and specialised useof the noun in its singular form only: on foot (but not on the foot, or on feet which may occur in free prepositional word-groups), in fact (but not in the fact), at first (but not at the first), etc.
There is a miscellaneous class of adverbs that have no formal signals at all to distinguish them in isolation; we know them as adverbs because of their positions in utterances, in which the other parts of speech are clearly identifiable. Many adverbs in this group are fairly frequent in occurrence: always, now, then, here, there, often, seldom, still, even. Others in this group are words which may also appear as other parts of speech, such as: downstairs, home, late, little, fast, stow, early, far, hard, near:
My friend is the world’s fastest runner [38]. (adjective)
The water was rising very fast [38]. (adverb)
It is hard to believe that she’s only nine [40]. (adjective)
He was still breathing hard after his run [40]. (adverb)
Formations of the type from outside, till now, before then, etc. cannot be included in the word-building sets of adverbs [13, 223]. It is not difficult to see that such formations differ in principle from the ones cited above. The difference consists in the fact that their parts are semantically not blended into an indivisible lexemic unity and present combinations of a preposition with a peculiar adverbial substantive — a word occupying an intermediary lexico-grammatical status between the noun and the adverb. This is most clearly seen on ready examples liberally offered by English texts of every stylistic standing:
The pale moon looked at me from above [13, 223].
By now Sophie must have received the letter and very soon we shall hear from her [13, 223].
The departure of the delegation is planned for later this week [41].
The freely converted adverbial substantives in prepositional collocations belong to one of the idiomatic characteristics of English, and may be likened, with due alteration of details, to partially substantivised adjectives of the adjectivid type. On this analogy the adverbial substantives in question may be called "adverbids" [13, 223].
Furthermore, there are in English some other peculiar structural types of adverbs which are derivationally connected with the words of non-adverbial lexemic classes by conversion [13, 223]. Conversion consist in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged [17, 118]. To adverbs coined by conversion belong both adverbs of full notional value and adverbs of half-notional value.
A peculiar set of converted notional adverbs is formed by adjective-stem conversives, such as fast, late, hard, high, close, loud, tight, etc. The peculiar feature of these adverbs consists in the fact that practically all of them have a parallel form in -ly, the two component units of each pair often differentiated in meaning or connotation: to work hard — hardly to work at all; to fall flat into the water — to refuse flatly; to speak loud — to criticise loudly; to fly high over the lake — to raise a highly theoretical question.
Among the adjective-stem converted adverbs there are a few words with the non-specific -ly originally in-built in the adjective (daily, weekly, lively, timely):
Invoices are signed on a daily basis [38]. (adjective)
The machines are inspected twice daily [38]. (adverb)
The purely positional nature of the conversion in question, i.e. its having no support in any differentiated categorial paradigms, can be reflected by the term "fluctuant conversives" [13] which is proposed to use as the name of such formations.
As for the fluctuant conversives of weakened pronominal semantics, very characteristic of English are the adverbs that positionally interchange with prepositions and conjunctive words (before, after, round, within): never before — never before our meeting; somewhere round — round the corner; not to be found within — within a minute.
Among the various types of adverbs, those formed from adjectives by means of the suffix -ly not only occupy the most representative place but also pose a special problem.
The problem is introduced by the very regularity of their derivation, the rule of which can be formulated quite simply: each qualitative adjective has a parallel adverb in –ly [13, 226]: silent — silently, slow — slowly, tolerable — tolerably, pious — piously, sufficient — sufficiently, tired — tiredly, explosive — explosively, etc.
This regularity of formation accompanied by the general qualitative character of semantics gave cause to A. I. Smirnitsky to advance the view that both sets of words belong to the same part of speech, the qualitative adverbs in -ly being in fact adjectives of specific combinability [9, 174-175].
The strong point of the adjectival interpretation of qualitative adverbs in -ly is the demonstration of the actual similarity between the two lexemic sets in their broader evaluative function, which fact provides for the near-identity of the adjectival and adverbial grammatical categories of comparison. On the whole, however, the theory in question is hardly acceptable for the mere reason that derivative relations in general are not at all relations of lexico-grammatical identity; for that matter, they are rather relations of non-identity, since they actually constitute a system of production of one type of lexical units from another type of lexical units [13, 227]. As for the types of units belonging to the same or different lexemic classes, this is a question of their actual status in the system of lexicon, i. e. in the lexemic paradigm of nomination reflecting the fundamental correlations between the lexemic sets of language. Since the English lexicon does distinguish adjectives and adverbs; since adjectives are substantive-qualifying words in distinction to adverbs, which are non-substantive qualifying words; since, finally, adverbs in -ly do preserve this fundamental nonsubstantive-qualification character — there can't be any question of their being "adjectives" in any rationally conceivable way. As for the regularity or irregularity of derivation, it is absolutely irrelevant to the identification of their class-lexemic nature [13, 228].
Thus, the whole problem is not a problem of part-of-speech identity; it is a problem of inter-class connections, in particular, of inter-class systemic division of functions, and, certainly, of the correlative status of the compared units in the lexical paradigm of nomination.
But worthy of attention is the relation of the adverbs in question to adverbs of other types and varieties, i. e. their intra-class correlations. As a matter of fact, the derivational features of other adverbs, in sharp contrast to the ly-adverbs, are devoid of uniformity to such an extent that practically all of them fall into a multitude of minor non-productive derivational groups [7]. Besides, the bulk of notional qualitative adverbs of other than ly-derivation have ly-correlatives (both of similar and dissimilar meanings and connotations). These facts cannot but show that adverbs in -ly should be looked upon as the standard type of the English adverb as a whole [13, 229].
1.3 Syntactic functions and positional characteristics of the adverb
Adverbs may perform different functions, modifying different types of words, phrases, sentences. Some adverbs are restricted in their combinability whereas others may modify different words, for instance enough, which may be used in to work enough, not quickly enough, quick enough. The most typical function of the adverb is that of adverbial modifier [8].
Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers of manner, place, time, degree to a finite or non-finite form of the verb:
He started his career in St Petersburg - or Leningrad as it then was [41].
(time)
The south should remain dry, buteverywhere else will have heavy rain.
[41]. (place)
Adam obviously adored his wife [40]. (manner)
I rather suspect we’re making a mistake [38]. (degree)
Some adverbs of time though synonymous, are used in different syntactic patterns. Thus, already is used in affirmative sentences, and yet - in interrogative and negative sentences:
Tim has already come back from his trip [40].
I haven’t finished my report yet [38].
Have you finished yet [38]?
However, already may occur in interrogative and negative sentences when there is an element of surprise or the question is suggestive, that is the speaker expects an affirmative answer:
Have they finished already [35]?
Adverbs may function as adverbial modifiers to an adjective or another adverb [19]. Usually the modifying adverb is an intensifier (very, rather, awfully, so, terribly, extremely, most, utterly, unusually, delightfully, unbelievably, amazingly, strikingly, highly, that, etc.) The same applies to composite adverbs, such as (kind of, sort of, a good bit of, a lot of, a hell of, a great deal of, etc.):
It is terribly important for parents to be consistent [38].
This new program is unbelievably good [41].
It made me feel kind of awkward [41].
Some adverbs - still, yet, far, much, any combine with comparative adjectives (much worse, not any better, still greater, etc.)
Adverbs of degree can modify certain kinds of prepositional phrases:
They lived nearly on the top of the hill [40].
His remarks were not quite to the point [40].
Comparative adverbs are used in clauses of proportional agreement, that is, parallel clauses in which qualities or actions denoted in them increase or decrease at an equal rate [25, 177]:
The longer I think about it the less I understand your reasons [41].
To express the idea that a quality or action decreases or increases at an even rate the comparative may be repeated, the two identical forms being connected by and:
He cried louder and louder [25, 177].
There are some adverbs which may modify nouns or words of nominal character, functioning as attribute, as in: the way ahead, the trip abroad, the journey home, his return home, the sentence above (below), the day before. A few adverbs can premodify nouns without losing their adverbial character: the then president, in after years, the above sentence, the now generation.
As adverbs modify words of different classes, they accordingly occupy different positions in the sentence. In comparison with other words, adverbs may be considered as the most movable words.However, adverbs are not identical in their ability to be moved to another position in the structure. There are generally four possible positions for adverbs in the sentence [18, 397]:
1) at the head of the sentence;
2) between the subject and predicate or, if the predicate is a complicated form, the adverb appears after the first auxiliary verb, link-verb or a modal verb;
3) before the word the adverb modifies;
4) at the end of the sentence.
Different semantic groups of adverbs tend to appear in different positions. Thus, many adverbs of time and frequency prefer Position 2:
A good strong cup of coffee is just what I need right now [41].
He is always in time for meals [38].
They sometimes stay up all night [41].
However, some of time adverbs appear in Position 4:
He came eventually [40].
The telephone rang, and he answered it immediately [40].
She hasn’t finished her breakfast yet [38].
Ifany adverbs of time and frequency are found in positions other than those characteristic of them, it means that these adverbs are intended for special emphasis [21, 399]:
They usually are very punctual. (common)
Usually they are very punctual. (emphatic)
Adverbs of place and direction usually occur in Position 4:
I looked for it everywhere [38].
The young people were enjoying themselves outside [38].
Adverbs of manner commonly appear in Position 4, after the predicate verb:
He gave her the money reluctantly [41].
She looked at me suspiciously [41].
Some adverbs of manner may occasionally be found in Position 2:
She carefully picked up all the bits of broken glass [40].
They secretly decided to leave the town [40].
Occasionally adverbs of manner may be found in Position 1. In that case the adverb does not only modify the predicative verb, but also the subject:
Angrily he denied that he had stolen the documents [41]. (= he was angry when he denied that he had stolen the documents)
Adverbs of degree (or intensifiers) are usually placed in Position 3, before the word they modify:
It’s absolutely the best museum in the country [38].
I definitely saw him crossing the street [38].
The adverb enough, when it modifies an adjective or an adverb, is placed in post-position to them:
You can go to school when you're old enough [40].
He didn’t work quickly enough [40].
However, adverbs of degree (intensifiers), if they modify verbs, may also be found in Position 4, at the end of the sentence:
The only way Glass could overcome this irreconcilable difference was by doing away with the bar lines completely [41].
But if the plea can be supported by a finding of guilt alone, a defendant might escape punishment altogether [40].
When occupying the initial position in the sentence, altogether is used parenthetically as a conjunctive adverb (= on the whole):
Latin America is a world where primitive ways of life exist near ultra-modern cities. Altogether, it is a continent full of vitality [40].
Chapter 2. Paradigmatics of adverbs
2.1 Semantic classification of adverbs
The adverb in English undergoes two paradigmatically relevant classifications:
1) semantic;
2) lexico-grammatical.
Semantic classification is based on the meaning of adverbs. According to their meaning, adverbs fall into the following groups [18, 393]:
1. Adverbs of time: afterwards, already, at once, eventually,
immediately, lately, now, presently, soon, suddenly, then, when, yesterday, yet, etc.:
Our class is going to Londontomorrow [36, 55].
It’s been two weeks now since she called home [38].
2. Adverbs of frequency: always, constantly, hardly ever, never, occasionally, often, seldom, sometimes, three times, twice, etc.:
There is always somebody at home in the evenings [40].
They sometimes stay up all night [40].
3. Adverbs of place or direction: abroad, ashore, backwards, below, downstairs, everywhere, far, here, inside, outside, seaward(s), there, to and fro, where, etc.: