The Local Government
1995-1998 – the system was reformed.
Types. 45 Unitary authorities, mostly around the big cities. Now the system of local government has one-tier authorities, only unitary. 2-tier authorities: county councils (councillor), subdivided into district / borough councils (mayors). In England – 45 u. c., 34 c. c. and 238 d. / b. c. Local elections – for 4 years, councillors elect annually, serve on voluntary basis; the council doesn’t have executive powers, no administrator – basically self-regulating. The Queen’s represented by Lord Lieutenant of the county, attends on the Queen when she comes to the county, gives honours and grants on behalf of the crown.
Functions. Responsible for education, the maintenance of the main roads, social services, welfare, libraries, fire service, refuse disposal. District councils: housing, urban roads, car parks, refuse collection, recreation, cemeteries, environmental health. Unitary councils – combine all these functions. Parish councils – in rural.
Sources of financing. 1 the council tax – on the owner-occupier or tenant of a dwelling which is their sole or main residence. Calculate: depending on evaluation of the market price of the dwelling. Standard Band D, divide dwellings into groups. 2 non-domestic rate – on other kinds of property; 3 government grants; 4 income from fees and charges for services.
London. 32 borough councils. The London mayor – Ken Livingston. Greater London authority (GLA) covers the area of 32 boroughs and the City of London. The Corporation of London: the Lord-Mayor – nominated annually by the City Guilds, 24 Aldermen, 130 councillors.
Wales. Only unitary authorities (22). Besides – devolution – the National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff for 4 years, 60 members and presiding officer. Can introduce secondary legislation, on the basis of acts passed by the Parliament in Westminster, cannot raise or lower income tax. The Welsh Cabinet – 1st Secretary, secretaries for minor matters (~ economic development, education, health, etc.). Have measure of independence nowadays.
Scotland. 29 unitary authorities, for 3 years, elected. + 3 island councils. Have greater independence than Wales. The Scottish Parliament, in Edinburgh, since 1999, 128 members. Has the right to introduce primary legislation and raise / lower income tax by up to 3p in the pound. The Scottish Executive – the government, for education, health, law and order, headed by the 1st Minister. Own notes – Scottish pound.
Northern Ireland: 26 district councils elected for 4 years.
The system of law and order
The Constitution is not codified in any formal document. The legislative branch – the HL, the HC, the Queen; the Cabinet and the PM – executive; they are combined by the Queen. In fact the Parliament is controlled by the executive, as all the bills pass to the Parliament by the majority party, also it is in the Parliament. Judicial system is represented by Courts, the HL is the main one. So there is practically no separation of powers. The majority party has the real power in the country. There is no constitutional court, the system provides for no checks and balances.
The legal system of England and Wales are separated of these of Scotland and Northern Ireland.
The system of courts. Supreme authority – the HL (supreme courts). The Ultimate Court of Appeal – Law Lords. Under the HL – Supreme Court of Judicature (rather abstract, no single body), including the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (responsible for civil cases), the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The High Court of Justice: 3 divisions – the Chancery Division (financial matters: bankruptcy, interpretation of transactions and wills), the Queen’s Bench Division (for commercial law: breach of contracts, serious personal injury), the Family Division (adoption, divorce, etc.). Claimant/plaintiff <–> defendant.
Civil cases: most are minor, settled in Small Claims Court (involving sum of money < £5,000), by a district judge, if he decides that you are right can award costs and usually compensation / damages. The more serious matter (e.g. car) – to the County court (circuit judge – travels to the place). You’d be represented by a solicitor or a barrister, if the case is serious (e.g. road accident and somebody was badly injured). If you are dissatisfied – to the Court of Appeal (Civil Division).
Criminal cases: Crown Prosecution Service, headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, works under the guidance of the Attorney-General. Crown Prosecution Service sends barristers and solicitors.
3 types of offences: 1) summary offences (95%) – e.g. motoring offences, dealt with in Magistrates’ courts (Justice of the Peace) – 3 people, ordinary citizens, chosen by the community, appointed by the Lord Chancellor on recommendations by local groups; unpaid, not professional lawyers (lay magistrates), without any jury – so advised on points of law and procedure by a special legally qualified clerk. Magistrates’ court can sentence to less than 6 month imprisonment or a fine of less than £5,000, if more serious – send to the Crown Court. 2) Offence triable either way (e.g. car theft) – choice belongs to the defendant, decides either should be heard by lay magistrates or the Crown Court. 3) Indictable offences (e.g. robbery, at the point of the gun or knife) – only in the Crown Court, presided by High Court Judges (full-time circuit judges) with a jury of 12 people (jurors). Crown Courts also hear the cases from Magistrates. If dissatisfied – to the Court of Appeal (the Criminal Division). Verdict is reached by the jury, after they have heard. Jury – local people (constitutional duty). The judge sits in the court room, makes sure that the trial is properly conducted. Counsel for prosecution, for Defense. The judge ~ guides, helps the jury to reach the verdict. Person is presumed to be innocent unless the prosecution can prove guilt above all reasonable doubt. Convicted, acquitted, recessed.
Offences: murder, manslaughter, rape, assault, assault and battery, arson, robbery, burglary, theft, mugging, shoplifting, kidnapping, embezzlement, bribery, forgery, perjury, slander, libel, blackmail, abuse of power/confidence, disorderly conduct, speeding.
Punishment: fine, imprisonment, community service, probation (report to a special probation officer), remand in custody, remand on bail, to grant, deny bail, release on parole; death penalty abolished in 1969. The age of criminal responsibility 10 years. For children – Juvenile Court (youth court), 15 years peak age: allow to live within the family, under special supervision, take into local authority care (in a community home), attend special school, live with foster parents, community service.
Lawyers. Solicitors – the lower category, may deal with public, barristers – cannot approach public. A person –> solicitor –> barrister – speaks in court. Solicitor speaks in the Magistrates’ Courts. Law society – for solicitors, the Bar – for barristers. Queen’s Counsels (QC) – in important cases. No special training for judges, Lord Chancellor decides who is to be a judge, chooses barristers.
9. The class system of modern Britain: the expansion of the middle class, class mobility, the upper classes, the emergence of a new underclass, the main causes of this, the British notion of professional classes, the perception of class system and class conflict in modern society
1990’s: upper class 1%, upper middle 3%, middle 16%, lower middle 25%, skilled working 25%, unskilled working 17%, underclass 13%. A market feature of last 3 decades of 20th century – major expansion of the middle class. In 1900 75% of manual workers, in 1991 – 36%. 2mln jobs created in the professional and managerial fields, works became more skilled and the service sector grew considerably; average income grew, so nowadays much of the working class population can afford a middle class life style. Thatcher made 2/3 of population house-owners by selling council houses for give-away prices, overwhelming majority have a bank account or a building society account; share-holders due to the privatization of state companies in 1980’s. Traditionally working at a plant was considered working class, but essentially middle class – a lot of mobility between middle, lower middle and working classes. Least mobility in upper class, in underclass – another result of Thatcher’s policies (abolished full-employment). 1% own ¼ of the nation’s wealth; inheritance, spread around the family to minimize the effect of taxation. Young people – professionals, like civil servants, lawyers, armed forced – during Thatcher’s period, a lot of them moved from the public service to the private sector, because of salaries. In 1964 people were asked if there was class struggle – 48% “yes”, in 1995 – 81%.
10. Historic country houses as part of British national heritage: the development of attitudes from the mid-19th century to the present day. The role of the main aristocratic families, the National Trust and the government in the preservation of the country houses
Until early 19th century – private houses of the aristocracy. Their role as national heritage began then. The Victorian idea – Tudor and Jacobean houses, contrasted to the 18the century houses which considered not-English, cosmopolitan.
A writer Nash published a book about them, everybody could see. Started traveling a lot, one of the most popular pastimes, + railways (1825), all classes excluding working classes. Few owners needed financial contribution, so no fee (only in 3-4 houses).
In 2nd half of the 19th century – change, friendly attitude broken, general public began to be called philistines (commerce, urbanization, comforts). Middle class – cosmopolitan resorts (Nice, Biarritz – tone was set by Edward, Victoria’s son). In European countries – opposite. In Jan 1895 – a charitable trust was set up, the National Trust (1st chairman – Duke of Westminster). Accepted gifts from people who cared, bought houses by public subscription, membership fees. Bought only ~60 houses. The second group of people – owners themselves – barbarians. Didn’t want to maintain. Deep agriculture depression, prices of land fell, grain prices fell, => economic and political power suffered severe blows, land and money more important than houses and contents, large houses were very expensive to maintain – found buyers, or redecorated, destroying historical features. In 1894 – death duty introduced, this ruined many aristocratic families. The third group – small, almost marginal – aesthetes, criticized philistines and barbarians.
Between the WW – public valuation continued to deteriorate, visiting stopped, closed, abandoned or demolished. Urbanization of the country – landowners began to sell land (death duty – 50%), ~ 1/5 of landowners fell out of the class. While they could sell lands, nobody needed houses, they could be bough “for a song”. Lots demolished, lots sold to various institutions, like public schools, colleges, youth hostels.
After WWII – change, deal with the government (schools, or store houses for national art collections); if not – to accommodate troops. Also – once is taken – no death duty. Everybody felt there was no future for the country houses life, lots demolished, sold, needed for schools, hospitals.
Late 50’s-60’s period of growing land prices, many landowners became multimillionaires. Then a group was formed “heritage in danger”. Tax exemption for important works of art, buildings, stretches of land. Owners were allowed to put their property in “maintenance funds” – controlled by the family, but treated as public bodies. Apply for maintenance grants – historic building council.
Nowadays – 1: privately owned houses – HHA (historic houses association), in best condition. 2: owned by the National Trust (membership fee, but visiting free). 3: owned by the Government, 1984 English heritage set up, organization funded by the Government, shells – nothing inside, or ruins. There is Secretary in the Cabinet for English Heritage. Besides buying – grants export license to take it out of the country, administers Historic Buildings Council grants. 4: institutional use, e.g. Warwick Castle – Mme Tussaud’s.
British History
1. Name the invaders who came to the British Isles before the Norman Conquest.
The Celts (700 BC), the Romans (55, 54 BC Caesar; 44, 77 AD Agricola), the Scotts from Ireland, the Picts from far north, the Anglo-Saxons (6th century), the Vikings (Danes, Norwegians, Swedes)
2. Who were the Druids?
The ancient Celtic priests and teachers, religious leaders, before Christianity.
3. What is Hadrian's Wall?
A stone wall which the Roman Emperor Hadrian ordered to be built across the north of England in 122 AD from the east coast to the west, in order to defend Roman Britain from attack by northern tribes. Every 15 miles – fort. In Northumberland.
4. What do the words "Danelaw" and "Danegeld" stand for?
Area conquered by the Danes, money (ransom) paid to the invaders.
5. What do you know about the battle of Hastings?
14 Oct 1066, the Norman King William the Conqueror defeated the army of the English King Harold.
6. Trace the history of religious on the British Isles up to the final conversion to Christianity.
Druids, paganism, –> pagan Romans, eradicated druids, –> 391 Theodosius ordered the closure of all pagan temples, –> 597 Pope Gregory sent mission to convert Anglo-Saxons, St. Augustine – missionary; monasteries, churches, by 8th century Christianized.
7. What changes did the Romans bring to Britain?
Introduction of towns, baths in each, aqueducts, drainage, sewage, walls against invasions, armed camps, villas, introduces some vegetables and fruits.
8. When was England part of a Scandinavian Empire? The Angevin Empire?
11th cent. 1154 - end of the 14th century.
9. Comment on the origin of names like Gloucester, Worcester, Essex, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday.
Gloucester, Worcester – “castra” meaning the armed camp (lat.), Essex – east Saxons, Thursday – Vikings’ strongest god of thunder Thor, Friday – Freya’s day.
10. Which languages of Britain are of Celtic origin?
Gaelic, Erse (Scottish and Irish), Welsh, Irish.
11. What historical significance does the Bayeux Tapestry have?
A tapestry (large piece of heavy woven cloth) 70m long, made in Bayeux (France) in 11th-12th centuries, whose pictures tell the story of the Norman Conquest.
12. When was Westminster Abbey built? Rebuilt?
11th century, 13th century.
13. In what document is the story of the Viking invasion told?
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
14. What is Witenagemot?
The council of the nobility and top clergy in 10th century.
15. What was the capital of Anglo-Saxon and early Norman England?
Winchester.
16. How was the royal household expected to be financed in the medieval times? When did this practice end?
The king was believed to be the richest landowner, expected to live off his own. Then system of taxation – the knights were encouraged to stay in their manors and improve, pay taxes, rather than serve the king at the court. Ended when the Civil List was introduced, money was given by the Parliament.
17. When was trial by jury introduced? How did it work?
12th century, jurors were the witnesses themselves. Nobody could be convicted unless jurors swore that there was the case against somebody.
18. In what war was the battle of Crecy fought? What was its result?
The Hundred Years War. 1356. Prince of Wales (Black Prince) defeated the French.
19. What document was signed at Runneymede? In what year? What were its provisions?
Magna Charta, 1215. ~ 1st English constitution, lay down the foundation of the government, 60 articles. Most important – no free man was to be arrested, imprisoned except by the law of land (presumption of innocence); no tax should be introduced without the approval of thee Council. Privileges to boroughs – charted town, guaranteed freedom of cities.
20. What are the crusades?
8 wars led by Christian European kings in the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries to get control of Palestine from the Muslims, since both sides believed that Palestine was a holy land in their religion.
21. How and when did Parliament emerge in England?
13th century – 1265. Great councils more and more often, representatives from shires, towns came to meetings. In 1350 divided into HL and HC.
22. How was the feudal system organized under William the Conqueror?
Brought 170 tenants-in-chief, 5,000 knights. The honour (land) – to tenants-in-chief, manors – to knights. Ruling class – tenants, knights (gentry class), bishops (appointed by the King). William gave orders to tenants, they to knights. Common people belonged to the knights.