1.5 The problem of Parts of speech
A word is known as the smallest naming unit of the language. According to L. Bloomfield, word is a minimum free form. Close observation and comparison of words clearly shows that a great number of words have a composite nature and are made up of smaller units, each possessing sound-form and meaning. In other words, the term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a grammatical employment is a word is therefore simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.
The words of every language fall into classes which are called parts of speech. The problem of parts of speech is one of the controversial problems of modern linguistics. The theoretical side of this problem is the subject matter of the theoretical grammar. therefore we should base our comparison of system of parts of speech on the generally recognized (acknowledged) opinions of grammarians.
In order to make easier to learn the language the grammarians usually divide the word-stock of the language into some subclasses called in linguists the parts of speech.
The main principles of classifying words into parts of speech are: their meaning, form and function, that is to say the words of any language differ from each other in meaning in form and in function. different parts of speech have different lexical meanings.
e.g. verbs denote process or state; nouns express the names of objects, adjectives their properties…
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories. Verbs have the category of mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number etc., noun – case, number, adjective – comparison, etc. The parts of speech also differ from each other in their syntactic function; e.g. verbs are used in the sentence structure as predicates, nouns-as subjects, adjectives-as attributes etc.
All words of the comparing languages may be divided into three main groups:
1. Notional words
2. Structural words
3. Independent elements
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and perform independent syntactic functions in the sentence structure, they serve as primary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the following parts of speech: Noun, verb, adjective, pronouns, numerals, statives and adverbs. It should be kept in mind that statives in Uzbek are otter interchanged with adjectives and not treated as an independent part of speech.
Structural words differ from the notional words semantically their lexical meaning is of a more general character than that of the notional words. Moreover they sometimes altogether avid it that they are independent syntactic function in the sentence structure but serve either to express various relations between the words in a sentence (e.g. trees in the garden, Tom and Joe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of the words (e.g. there is a book on the table, the book on the table is mine, etc.)
The following parts of speech are to be treated as structural words: articles, particles (only, solely, exclusively mainly) prepositions and conjunctions. Articles and prepositions are individual character of English differentiating it from Uzbek as the functions of these parts of speech in Uzbek are performed by other elements of the language.
Independent elements are words which are characterized by their peculiar meanings of various kind. They usually have no grammatical connections with the sentence in which they occur, i.e. they do not perform any syntactic function in the sentence. e.g. They certainly will come to the party.
Sometimes independent elements can even serve as sentences themselves; e.g. Yes, No, Alas.
Independent class of words include modal words, interjections, words of affirmation and negation.
It is noteworthy that the decision of words into parts of speech can be accepted only with certain reservation there are words which cannot be classed among any of the above motioned parts of speech such as a please, anyway ҳар қалай.
Typological categories of English and Uzbek words
The words of any language are characterized by their ability to express definite notions existing in this society, thus changing their forms. Most of the notions existing in the society have common peculiarities, i.e. they have universal character.
Among the linguistic categories which can be traced in most of the languages of the world we can see the categories which display typologically general character but can be expressed in different languages in different ways. Studying these linguistic facts figuring out their similarities and differences is much of importance for the man of letters, especially for the graduates of the language faculties of universities who are going to become English teachers and interpreters in near future.
For instance, such linguistic notions as case, gender person, tense, voice, possession, etc. are of general character for the comparing languages, but they may be expressed by typological different means of the language. In this chapter we try to generalize the main means of expressing the notions which are of peculiar type of the comparing languages.
1.6 Typological category of case
The system of grammatical forms indicating the syntactic relations of nouns (or pronouns) is usually treated as the category of case, in other words, case is a grammatical form which takes part in the formation of the paradigm of nouns (or pronouns). Grammarians seem to be divided in their opinions as to the case system of the English nouns. The most common view is that they have only two case: common (subject) and possessive (genitive) cases. The common case is characterized by a zero morpheme (suffix) e.g. child, boy, student, ir. and the possessive case by the indexing is and its phonetic variants as [s] and [z].
The Uzbek бош келишиги (common or subject case) corresponds in meaning and function to the English common case both of them are unmarked member of the case opposition and perform similar syntactic function in the sentence structure.
English common case and other five cases of Uzbek are marked members of the case opposition in both languages. The English possessive case is marked by the stiffly is which can sometimes be substituted by the preposition of (e.g. my father’s room, the room of may father) and therefore is sometimes called of – genitive – case. This case denotes possession of a thing or a person and in Uzbek it has its correspondence in the Uzbek караткич келишиги which is expressed by the case ending suffix num.
Dealing with notion of possession one should keep in mind that in Uzbek this category may be expressed not only by the nouns but also their antecedents in the pleonastic phrase such as менинг опамб сизнинг паспортингизю. In this case we have to face the problem of redundancy and often try to avoid it using the modified noun only which contains the possessive suffix. e.g. опам кeлди. In this case the suffix of possession can be rendered in English and in Russian by means of special possessive pronouns. e.g. My sister came. Моя сестра пришла.
Meaning and functions of the other Uzbek cases may be denoted in Uzbek either by means of prepositions or by word order. For instance the meaning and function of the Uzbek тушум келиши is expressed in Uzbek by means of the case ending – шиwhich denotes the object acted upon and it may be expressed in English by means of word order which is characterized in this language to be very strict in comparison with Russian or Uzbek (e.g. курдим кузингни колдим балога, кайга борайин энди давога? – Виделятвоиочичерные (изаболел) кудамнетеперьидтиналечение?) Some English grammarians O. Curme, M. Doutschbein recognize word order in English as dative case.
Dealing with this case one has to keep in mind the structure of the sentence i.e. the word order in the sentences of the comparing languages – sov (in Uzbek e.g. мен укамни курдим) and svo (in English I saw my brother»)
The Uzbek урин пайт келишиги denotes he place of the thing or a person in the space and it can be rendered in English by means of prepositions at, in, an, by, over, above, among, between, behind etc. (e.g.У:китоб жавонда. The book is in the bookcase.) It should be kept in mind that most of the English preposition may contain (more) additional meaning denoting the place of the thing or a person. (сu in – мчи-behind‑орқасида, between‑орасида, under‑остида, etc).
The Uzbek жуналиш келишиги denotes the direction of an action performed by means of the case ending‑га. It can be rendered in English also by means of prepositions to, at, into, etc. e.g. V(йигит) мактаб – га кетди. He went to school. У қиз менга қаради. She looked at me.
Чиқиш келишиги of Uzbek nouns denotes the beginning point of the action denoted by the verb. It can be rendered in English by means of preposition from, out of, from under, etc. e.g.:У(қиз) Лондон-дан келди. She came from London.У(йигит) сумкаси-дан қулқопларини олди. He took his gloves out of his bag.
1.7 Typological category of gender
The typological category of gender consists of the notions of natural (biological sex and the grammatical (formal) gender. The connection of this category with the natural sex is inthe animals and birds. It is displayed by the nouns and pronouns in English. (But in Russian it can also expressed by the adjectives and the past simple tense forms of the verbs.) Most of the Uzbek grammar books do not contain any information about the category of gender of Uzbek nouns, because the authors consider Uzbek nouns not to have this category at all.
In accordance with their lexical meanings the nouns of the comparing nouns may be classed as belonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Names of male beings are usually masculine (e.g.: man, husband, boy, son, nephew, bull, ox, ram(whether), cock, stallion – ота, уғил, эркак, ҳукиз, буқа, новвос, қучқор, хуроз, айғир) and names of female beings are feminine (e.g.: woman, lady, girl, daughter, wife, niece, cow heifer(ғунажин), ewe [ju:] (совлиқ), hen, mare‑ауол, хоним, қиз(бола), қиз (фарзанд), хотин, сигир, ғунажин, соблиқ, макиуон, байтал).All other nouns are said to be neuter gender (e.g.:pencil, flower, rain, bird, sky-қалам, гул, уомғир, парранда, қуш, осмон).
Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns by the personal pronouns in the mind person singular, i.e., she, it.
However there some nouns in English which may be treated as either makes or females. e.g: friend, cousin, doctor, neighbor, worker, etc. The same can be said about the Uzbek terms of kinship e.g.: жиян, қариндош, холавачча, қуда, қушни, табиб, ишчи. They are said to be of common (neuter) gender. When there is no need to make distinction of sex the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns.
There are three ways of expressing the category of gender in the comparing languages: morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological way of expressing the category of gender is realized by adding suffixes of gender to the stem of the word. It is a highly developed way of expressing gender in Russian by means of suffixes ending in: a) consonants to be masculine, e.g.: дом, стол, праздник; b) vowels as – a, – я to be feminine. e.g.: мама, старуха, тетя; c) vowels-o, – e to be neuter. e.g.: ружъуо, море, окноит.п.
English has the only suffix – ess which is used to denote feminine gender.e.g.: host-ess, actr-ess, waitr-ess, princ-ess, lion-ess, and tiger-ess. Feminine gender in Uzbek may often be expressed by means of the suffix- a which is supposed to be of Arabic origin e.g.: –раис‑а, вазир‑а, шоир‑а, муаллим‑а, котиб‑аetc.
In order denote the gender syntactic way is also possible. In this case different kinds of combinations of words are formed in which adjunct word (modifier) usually denotes the sex of the head word. e.g.: man servant – қарол, amid servant‑оксоч, boy friend-ўғил бола уртоқ, girl friend-қиз бола ўртоқ, tom cat‑еркак мушук, tabby cat‑урғочи мушук, he-wolf‑еркак бўри, she wolf‑урғочи бўри, he goat‑така, she goat‑она ечки, etc. As is seen from these examples English gender denoted by a syntactic combination (man servant she goat can be expressed in Uzbek both by syntactically and lexically, (қарол, она ечки).
In most cases gender can be expressed lexically, i.e. by the stem of the noun only. e.g.: father‑ота, uncle‑амаки, niece – (қиз) жиян, sister-in-law‑келин, lord‑жаноб,also names of animals, such as mare‑бия, tiger – (арка) йўлбарс, ram-қўчқор, etc. Names of people can also denote the gender of the person who owns this name. e.g.: Arthur, Christopher, John – Аҳмаджон, Баҳодир, Шаҳобиддин denoting male being and Mary, Christine, Nelly, –Сайера, Мехринисо, Гулоим, etc.
Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (ship, boat, yacht, life-raft), the noun `car`, as well as the names of countries are sometimes referred to as feminine gender, i.e. by means of `she`. This fact is usually called personification. e.g.:
a. Sam joined the famous whaler `Globe`. She was a ship on which any young man would be proud to sail.
b. England prides herself with her greenness and tidiness.
Such nouns as masculine gender. Nouns like `nature, country, mercy, faith, hope, modesty` are used as feminine gender.
1.8 Typological category of plurality
The system of grammatical forms expressing grammatical degree (number) is termed (called) the category of plurality. This category. In comparing languages the formants indicating this category are usually added to the stem of nouns (or pronouns). WE should distinguish the logical number (degree) and grammatical number. From the logical point of view proper nouns usually denote a single thing or a person. e.g.: John, Собир, London, Тўйтепа, etc.The common nouns are used to denote common type of things, of course, logically more than one.
As we know that the category of plurality denotes more than oneness of things, people or phenomena. Grammatically it can be based in English on the opposition of `zero morpheme and the suffix – s, – en, and root changing abilities of some nouns: i.e. – s, – en, in Uzbek it is based on the opposition of zero morpheme and suffix – лар, i.e. – лар. Among the parts of speech this category is distinguished grammatically by nouns, pronouns and verbs. In comparing languages this category may also be denoted lexically by numerals. (i.e. two, fifteen, thirty, thousand‑иккт, ўн беш, ўттиз, минг) Numerals are not used in the grammatical plural forms because in the plural form they became substantive zed i.e. they become nouns (икктлар, олтичилар).
It should be kept in mind that there are languages having `dual` and `trial` numbers pronouns – ic-wif-we where wit denoted a dual number)
Plurality of nouns. Uzbek nouns and pronouns usually denote this number by means of suffix – лар (eg: одам – лар, муттаҳам-лар)Which can sometimes be used also to denote respect to a person who is spoken about. e.g.: Дадамлар келдилар. (But you have to keep in mind that you can’t have mote than one father).
English nouns can express the notion of plurality in the following ways:
a) by means of suffixes:
– s, – es (wife-wives, head-heads)
– en (ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brotheren);
– a datum-data, sanatorium-sanatoria, phenomenon-phenomena) etc.
b) by changing the root vowel (man-men, goose-geese)
Plurality of verbs The English verbs can denote the notion of plurality in the following ways:
a) by opposing the finite verbs in the third person singular to the other forms with zero morpheme: live-s live#
b) by means of suppletive forms of auxiliary verbs:
am, is-are; was-were; have-has-had;
The Uzbek verbs usually express plurality by means of the following suffixes:
a) – лар (келди) лар;
б) – миз, – сиз, – гниз, дилар (бора-миз, келадилар);
с) – ш, – иш (кел-ишди);
This category can be expressed by means of personal pronouns in both languages; Cl.: I-we; me-us; he/she/ it-they; In Uzbek:мен-бизжсен-сизлар; у-улар.