If we speak about the dictionary as a linguistic term, it is a list of words with their definitions, a list of characters, or a list of words with corresponding words in other languages. Many dictionaries also provide pronunciation information; grammatical information; word derivations, histories, or etymologies; illustrations; usage guidance; and examples in phrases or sentences. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book, but more and more dictionaries are produced as software runs from electronic PDA or a general purpose computer. Most dictionaries are produced by lexicographers.
Since words and their meanings develop over time, dictionary entries are organized to reflect these changes. Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.
Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are encyclopedic, providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or linguistic, concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.
Any dictionary has been designed to fulfill one or more functions. The dictionary functions chosen by the maker(s) of the dictionary provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the selection of entry words, over the choice of information types, to the choice of place for the information (e.g. in an article or in an appendix). There are two main types of function. The communication-oriented functions comprise text reception (understanding), text production, text revision, and translation. The knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used for acquiring specific knowledge about a particular matter, and for acquiring general knowledge about something. The optimal dictionary is one that contains information directly relevant for the needs of the users relating to one or more of these functions. It is important that the information is presented in a way that keeps the lexicographic information costs at a minimum.
All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic.
Encyclopedic dictionaries describe different objects, phenomena and people and give some information about them.
Linguistic dictionaries describe vocabulary units, their semantic structure, their origin and their usage; words are usually given in the alphabetical order.
Linguistic dictionaries are divided into general and specialized dictionaries.
General dictionaries include explanatory (monolingual) and translation (bilingual) dictionaries.
In explanatory (monolingual) dictionaries the entry consists of the spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings, examples, phraseology.
Translation (bilingual) dictionaries give words and their equivalents in the other language.
Specialized dictionaries include dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, collocations, word frequency, slang, neologisms; etymological, pronouncing, phraseological and other dictionaries.
Specialized dictionaries (also technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields. A specialized dictionary may have a relatively broad coverage, e.g. a picture dictionary, in that it covers several subject fields such as science and technology (a multi-field dictionary), or their coverage may be more narrow, in that they cover one particular subject field such as law (a single-field dictionary) or even a specific sub-field such as contract law (a sub-field dictionary). Specialized dictionaries may be maximizing dictionaries, i.e. they attempt to achieve comprehensive coverage of the terms in the subject field concerned, or they may be minimizing dictionaries, i.e. they attempt to cover only a limited number of the specialized vocabulary concerned. Generally, multi-field dictionaries tend to be minimizing, whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to be maximizing.
Phraseological dictionaries describe idioms, colloquial phrases and proverbs. Some of them have examples from literature.
Etymological dictionaries trace present-day words to the oldest forms of these words and forms of these words in other languages.
Pronouncing dictionaries record only pronunciation.
Dictionaries of neologisms contain newly appearing words.
Anybody learning a foreign language knows the value of a good dictionary.
We all know how useful a bilingual dictionary can be in providing a quick translation for something when we don’t know a simple concrete word which translates easily. On the other hand a good well-organized monolingual dictionary can help a lot.
Let’s begin by looking at meaning. You know that one word can have a whole range of different meanings, some of them very similar to each other and some completely different. Which definition should you choose? Well, the first way in which a dictionary can help is by listing meanings so that the most common or frequent comes first, and at least common comes last. A good dictionary will also provide example sentences for each of the different meanings; it can solve a lot of problems if you can see how the word is actually used in a sentence.
The example sentence should also help with understanding the way the word combines with other words in a sentence. For example, you can’t really use a verb unless you know that it should be followed by a gerund or an infinitive or «that» clause or whatever.
Another important thing is the use of certain preposition after some adjectives which a dictionary will prompt to you. Besides, dictionaries give examples of common compounds and phrases which include the word you’ve looked up.
The example sentences can give you quite a lot of information about the grammar of the word you’re interested in; but it isn’t the only way in which a dictionary provides grammatical information. A dictionary will indicate to what word class a word belongs. A well-thought-out dictionary will also have a system of abbreviations or symbols to tell you, for example, whether a noun is countable, whether a verb is transitive or intransitive and so on. You won’t be able to use a word correctly in a sentence unless you know the answers to such questions.
English is famous for its unpredictable spellings and a dictionary is obviously going to be very useful here. A dictionary will tell you whether this spelling is British or American. You can even find out whether a verb has an irregular past tense or whether an adjective has an irregular comparative form.
The phonetic alphabet is used in dictionaries to tell you about the pronunciation of a word, and a special indication will help you get the stress in the right place.
List of major English dictionaries:
The Penguin English Dictionary
Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Webster's Third New International Dictionary (descriptive)
Random House Dictionary of the English Language
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
Webster's New World Dictionary
Oxford English Dictionary (descriptive)
Concise Oxford Dictionary
New Oxford Dictionary of English
New Oxford American Dictionary
Canadian Oxford Dictionary
ITP Nelson Canadian Dictionary
Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (prescriptive)
Noah Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language (prescriptive)
The Century Dictionary
Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable
Macquarie Dictionary, The, a dictionary of Australian English
Chambers Dictionary
Collins COBUILD
Collins English Dictionary
Gage Canadian Dictionary
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
Black's Law Dictionary, a law dictionary
3. The characteristics of Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners
The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners was conceived, compiled and edited by the Reference and Electronic Media Division of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Managing editor is Michael Mayor. The Dictionary was printed and bound in Malaysia in 2002.
The Dictionary includes words on the basis of their use in the language today. Some words are identified as being trademarks or service marks. Neither the presence nor absence of such identification in this Dictionary is to be regarded as affecting in any way, or expressing a judgement on, the validity or legal status of any trademark, service mark, or other proprietary rights anywhere in the world.
The definitions in the Macmillan English Dictionary have been based on information derived from 200 million words of English which make up the World English Corpus.
The Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners is a linguistic dictionary because it describes vocabulary units, their semantic structure, their origin and their usage; words are given in the alphabetical order.
It is a general, explanatory (monolingual) dictionary. The entry consists of the spelling, transcription, grammatical forms, meanings, examples, phraseology.
As for the components or the structure of this Dictionary it’s the following:
| Some words have more than | acid1/ / noun ** |
| one entry because they belong | 1[С/U] a chemical substance with |
| to a different word class al | a PH value (= a measure used in chem- |
| although they are spelt the same. | istry) of less than 7: hydrochloric acid |
| The small number at the end of | – compare ALKALI |
| the headword tells you that | 2 [U] informal the illegal drug LSD |
| there’s more than one entry for | |
| this word. | |
| acid2 / / adj 1 very sour: | |
| ACIDIC: Add more sugar if it tastes | |
| too acid. 2 containing acid or consist | |
| ing of an acid: ACIDIC: These plants | |
| prefer an acid soil. 3 an acid remark | |
| or acid humour shows criticism in a | |
| way that is clever but cruel: ACERBIC. | |
| Compound words are separate | 'acidֽhouse noun [U] a style of |
| entries in the alphabetical list. | HOUSE music that developed in the |
| US in the mid-1980s and became very | |
| popular in the UK in the late 1980s | |
| where it was played at RAVE parties | |
| Some words are shown at the | acidify / / verb [I/T] to be - |
| end of the entry for the word | come an acid, or cause a substance to |
| from which they are derived. | become an acid – acidification |
| / / noun [U] | |
| Some words are used in idioms | bat your eyes/eyelashes to open and |
| or other fixed expressions. | close your eyes very quickly several |
| These expressions are shown at | times, intending to be attractive to |
| the end of the main entry. | someone |
| go to bat for smb mainly Am E in - | |
| formal to give someone your support | |
| and help | |
| not bat an eyelid to not be shocked, | |
| worried, or upset by something | |
| Phrasal verbs are shown after | bat a'round phrasal vb [T] to dis - |
| the entry for the main verb. | cuss ideas or plans in an informal way |
| Many words have more than | dolly / / noun [C] 1 informal a |
| one meaning. When meanings | DOLL 2 a flat structure with wheels |
| are very different, they are | for moving heavy loads or for sup - |
| shown as separate senses with | porting a film camera → CORN |
| numbers. | DOLLY |
| Some words have many differ - | bleed / / ( past tense and past par - |
| ent meanings, and so the en - | ticiple bled / / ) verb * |
| tries can be long. Entries with | 1 when blood flows out |
| five or more meanings have a | 2 make smb pay money |
| ‘menu’ at the top. | 3 when colour spreads |
| 4 take liquid/ gas from smth | |
| 5 take blood from smb | |
| The International Phonetic Al - | commerce / / noun [U] ** |
| phabet shows how a word is | the activity of buying and selling |
| pronounced. | goods and services: TRADE: the needs |
| of industry and commerce | |
| When British and American pro - | basil / ; Am E / noun [U] |
| nunciations are very different, | a plant whose sweet leaves are used in |
| both are given. | salads and cooking, especially in |
| dishes containing tomato. Basil is a | |
| herb. | |
| Stress marks tell us which part | 'cabin ֽcrew noun [C] the people on a |
| of a compound to stress when we | plane whose job is to look after the pas - |
| are saying it. | sengers |
| Irregular inflections are shown. | do1/ / (3rd person singular does / weak |
| ; strong /; past tense | |
| did / /; past participle done / / | |
| verb *** | |
| Some words are printed in red | convince / / verb [T] *** |
| with a star rating to show their | 1 to make someone believe that some - |
| frequency. For example, a word | thing is true |
| with one star is fairly common | |
| and a word with three stars is one | blank1 / / adj ** |
| of the most basic words in Eng - | 1 blank paper or a blank space is empty |
| lish. | and contains |
| embarrass / / verb [T] * | |
| 1 to make someone feel nervous, | |
| ashamed, or stupid | |
| Italic words (called ‘labels’) show | bus1/ / noun [C] *** |
| which part of the English-speaking | 1 a large road vehicle with a lot of seats |
| world is used in, or tell us whether | that you pay to travel on, especially one |
| it is used in informal contexts, | that takes you fairly short distances and |
| specialized contexts etc. | stops frequently: by bus The children go |
| to school by bus. miss the bus If we | |
| don’t leave soon, we’ll miss the last bus. | |
| 1a mainly Am E A COACH | |
| 2 computing a set of wires that send in | |
| formation from one part of a computer | |
| system to another | |
| Sometimes a word that is used | aubergine / / noun [C/U] Br |
| only in British English has an ex - | E a vegetable with a smooth dark purple |
| act equivalent in American Eng - | skin and white flesh. Am E eggplant |
| lish. These equivalents are shown | |
| at the end of a definition. | |
| Example sentences in italic | basis / / (plural bases / /) |
| show us how a word is used in | noun [C] *** |
| context. | 1 a particular method or system for doing |
| or organizing something: on a … basis | |
| workers who are employed on a seasonal | |
| or temporary basis. | |
| Information about collocation - | on the basis of smth Don’t make your |
| how words combine and which | decision on the basis of cost alone. |
| structures can be used with a word. | |
| When a word has many collocations, | Words frequently used with basis |
| these are shown in a box at the end | verbs: constitute, create, establish, form, |
| of the entry. | lay, provide, serve as |
| There's information about the use | Both above and over can be used to |
| of a word in practice. | mean ‘at a higher level than something’: |
| the light above/over the door. | |
| Use above when something is not di - | |
| rectly over something else: on the hillside | |
| above the river. | |
| Use over when something moves or | |
| stretches across the space above some - | |
| thing: flying over London, the bridge | |
| over the river. | |
| There're hints which help us to avoid | If you take something that someone of - |
| common errors. | fers you or if you allow something to |
| happen, you accept it: We accepted her | |
| offer of help. | |
| If you say that you are willing to do | |
| something, you agree to do it: She | |
| agreed to work at the weekend. | |
| You accept something, but you agree to | |
| do something. | |
| There're notes that tell us about the | Cinderella / / noun [C |
| origin of a word. | usually singular] |
| 1 someone or something that has good | |
| qualities but is treated badly or ignored: | |
| Primary education has long been the | |
| Cinderella of the education service. | |
| Cinderella is the main character in a fa - | |
| mous children’s story. She is a poor girl, | |
| badly treated by her stepsisters but, in the | |
| end, thanks to the power of magic, she is | |
| able to marry the rich attractive Prince | |
| Charming. | |
| There're definitions which introduce | address1 / / noun [C] *** |
| us to related words. | 1 the name of the place where you live |
| or work, including the house or office | |
| number and the name of the street, area, | |
| and town. It may also include a set of | |
| numbers and letters, called a postcode in | |
| British English and a zip code in Ameri - | |
| can English. | |
| Sometimes the opposite of a word | obedient / / adj *doing what a |
| is shown. | person, law, or rule says you must do: |
| The children stood in a little group, dis - | |
| ciplined and obedient. – opposite | |
| DISOBEDIENT | |
| Some definitions give us synonyms. | booking / / noun [C] ** |
| 1 an arrangement to buy a travel ticket, | |
| stay in a hotel room etc at a later date: | |
| RESERVATION: Holiday bookings are up | |
| 20% on last year. |
Except of all the components of this Dictionary we can also single out such elements as: Language Awareness( the information about numbers, phrasal verbs, Academic English, metaphor, computer words, pragmatics, spoken discourse, sensitivity, British and American English, Business English and word formation) and different illustrations on various topics: House, Kitchen, Office, Clothes and patterns, Motorway and Types of vehicle, Transport, Car, Trees, plants and flowers, Fruit, Vegetables, Animals, Sports, Gym and Games.
Ending
In this work we succeeded in achievement of all the aims that we had had at the beginning of our investigation: to study the history of lexicography and its modern development, to make out the dictionary its notion, functions, classification and components, to characterize the Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners as an example of a dictionary of good quality. So we proved the importance of dictionary-making in modern linguistics.
So General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. In other words it is the art and craft of writing dictionaries.
So we can’t imagine our studying or work without lexicography because any pupil, student and even experienced teacher whose activity is closely connected with studying or teaching a language constantly needs a good dictionary which can always help at any time.
The material of this report can be used by anybody who is interested in lexicography as a science and wants to know more about dictionary-making itself.
List of used literature
1. David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Second Edition) - Cambridge University Press, 2003.
2. Weiner E.S.C., The Oxford Miniguide to English Usage – OUP, 1987.
3. Lyons J., New Horizons in Linguistics – Lnd., 1970.
4. Longman Essential Activator, 1997.
5. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 1996.
6. Arnold I.V., English Word – Moscow, 1973.
7. Benson M, Benson E, The BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English Language – Amsterdam, 1986.
8. Borisova L.M., Fomenko O.V., Introduction to English Philology – Kolomna, 2004.