When we no more can use, or even abuse thee!"
("Don Juan")
Ambrosial is a poetic word meaning 'delicious',- 'fragrant', 'divine'. Cash is a common colloquial word meaning 'money', 'money that a person actually has', 'ready money'.
Whenever literary words come into collision with non-literary ones there arises incongruity, which in any style is always deliberate, inasmuch as a style presupposes a conscious selection of language means.
The following sentence from Dickens's "A Christmas Carol" illustrates with what skill the author combines elevated words and phrases and common colloquial ones in order to achieve the desired impact on the reader—it being the combination of the supernatural and the ordinary.
"But the wisdom of our ancestors is in the simile; and my unhallowed hands shall not disturb it, or the Country's done for."
The elevated ancestors, simile, unhallowed, disturb (in the now obsolete meaning of tear to pieces) are put alongside the colloquial contraction the Country^ (the country is) and the colloquial done for.
This device is a very subtle one and not always discernible even to an experienced literary critic, to say nothing of the rank-and-file reader. The difficulty lies first of all in the inability of the inexperienced reader to perceive the incongruity bf the component parts of the utterance. Byron often uses bathos, for example,-
"They grieved for those who perished with the cutter
And also for the biscuit-casks and butter."
The copulative conjunction and as well as the adverb also suggest the homogeneity of the concepts those who perished and biscuit-casks and butter. The people who perished are placed on the same level as the biscuits and butter lost at the same time. This arrangement may lead to at least two inferences:
1) for the survivors the loss of food was as tragic as the loss of friends who perished in the shipwreck;
2) the loss of food was even more disastrous, hence the elevated grieved ... for food.
It must be born in mind, however, that this interpretation of the subtle stylistic device employed here is prompted by purely linguistic analysis: the verbs to grieve and to perish, which are elevated in connotation, are more appropriate when used to refer to people—and are out of place when used to refer to food. The every-day-life cares and worries overshadow.the grief for the dead, or at least are put on the same level. The verb to grieve, when used in reference to both the people who perished and the food which was lost, weakens, as it were, the effect of the first and strengthens the effect of the second.
The implications and inferences drawn from a detailed and meticulous analysis of language means and stylistic devices can draw additional information from the communication. This kind of implied meaning is derived not directly from the words but from a much finer analysis palled sup rali near or suprasegmental.
Almost of the same kind are the following lines, also from Byron:
"Let us have wine and women, mirth and laughter, .
Sermons and soda-water—the day after."
Again we have incongruity of concepts caused by the heterogeneity of the conventionally paired classes of things in the first line and the alliterated unconventional pair in the second line. It needs no proof that the words sermons and soda-water are used metonymically here signifying 'repentance' and 'sickness1 correspondingly. The decoded form of this utterance will thus be: "Let us now enjoy ourselves in spite of consequences." But the most significant item in the linguistic analysis here will, of course, be the identical formal structure of the pairs I. wine and women; 2. mirth and laughter and 3. sermons and soda-water. The second pair consists of words so closely related that they may be considered almost synonymous. This affects the last pair and makes the words sermons and soda-water sound as if they were as closely related as the words in the first two pairs. A deeper insight into the author's intention may lead the reader to interpret them as a tedious but unavoidable remedy for the sins committed.
Byron especially favors the device of bathos in his "Don Juan." Almost every stanza contains ordinarily unconnected concepts linked together by a coordinating conjunction and producing a mocking effect or a realistic approach to those phenomena of life which imperatively demand recognition, no matter how elevated the subject-matter may be.
Here are other illustrations from this epoch-making poem:
"heaviness of heart or rather stomach;"
"There's nought, no doubt, so much the spirit calms
As rum and true religion"
"...his tutor and his spaniel"
"who loved philosophy and a good dinner"
"I cried upon my first wife's dying day
And also when my second ran away."
We have already pointed out the peculiarity of the device, that it is half linguistic, half logical. But the linguistic side becomes especially conspicuous when there is a combination of stylistically heterogeneous words and phrases. Indeed, the juxtaposition of highly literary norms of expression and words or phrases that must be classed as non-literary, sometimes low colloquial or even vulgar, will again undoubtedly-produce a stylistic effect, and when decoded, will contribute to the content of the utterance, often adding an element of humour. Thus, for instance, the following from Somerset Maugham's "The Hour before Dawn":
"'Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut, darling?' he retorted."
The device is frequently presented in the structural model which we shall call heterogeneous enumeration
2.3 Interaction of different types of lexical meaning
Words in context, as has been pointed out, may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called con-textual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning, as, for example, with the word sophisticated. This is especially the case when we deal with transferred meanings.
What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical) meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the deviation from the acknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turn in the recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device.
The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. The term 'transferred' points to the process of formation of the derivative meaning. Hence the term 'transferred' should be used, to our mind, as a lexicographical term signifying diachronically the development of the se-, mantic structure of the word. In this case we do not perceive two meanings.
When, however, we perceive two meanings of a word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.
2.4 Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meaning
The interact ion or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning (the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easily recognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon or object) and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects. A third line is when a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.
Let us now proceed with a detailed analysis of the ontology, structure and functions of these stylistic devices.
The relations between different types of lexical meanings may be, based on various principles:
1) The principle of affinity-metaphor,
2) The principle of contiguity-metonymy
3) The principle of opposition-irony.
As it has been stated above the lexical meanings of a word comprise various meanings. But the difference between these meanings not be great and unexpected. In most cases these meanings appear on the principal of affinity existing between the notions and objects surrounding us.
The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning-the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easily recognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon or object-and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have nothing is common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects. A third line is when a certain property or contradictory sense.
The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.
Metaphor. The term “metaphor”, as the etymology of the word reveal means transference of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning. Quintilian remarks: It is due to the metaphor that each thing seems to have its name in language. “Language as a whole has been figuratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors.
Thus by transference of meaning the words grasp, get and see come to have the derivative meaning of understand. When these words are used with that meaning we can only register the derivative meaning existing in the semantic structures of the words.
Though the derivative meaning is metaphorical in origin, there is no stylistic effect because the primary meaning is no longer felt.
A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena-things, events, ideas, actions are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties .Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something in common .
The idea that metaphor is based on similarity or affinity of two objects or notions is erroneous .The two objects are identified and the fact that a common feature is pointed to and made prominent doesn’t make them similar .The notion of similarity can be carried on ad absurdum ,for example ,animals and human beings move , breathe ,eat ,but if one of these features ,i.e. movement ,breathing, is pointed to in animals and at the same time in human beings the two objects will not necessarily cause the notion of affinity.
Metaphor is not merely an artificial device making discourse more vivid and poetical. It is also necessary for the apprehension and communication of new ideas. It is the way in which creative minds perceive things.
Metaphors like many SDs must be classified according to three aspects:
1) The degree of expressiveness,
2) The structure i.e. in what linguistic form it is presented or by what part of speech it is expressed,
3) The function, i.e. the role of SD in making up an imagine.
The expressiveness of a SD depends on various aspects. Different authors and literary trends or movements have different sources where they borrow the material for images. Favourite images in oriental poetry are: nightingale, rose, moon. Nature, art, war, fairy tales and myths, science may also serve as sources for metaphorical images.
We distinguish genuine and trite metaphors. The metaphors in which images are quite unexpected are called genuine. Those which are commonly used-are called trite or dead metaphors. Genuine metaphors are also called speech metaphors .Genuine metaphors can easily become trite if they are frequently repeated.
There is an opinion that a metaphor is a productive way of building up new meanings and new words. Language can be called the “dictionary of faded metaphors”.
Examples of trite metaphors: The salt of life; a flight of imagination: the ladder of fame; to burn with passion (anger). The following metaphors enriched English phraseology; foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head of a nail, to be in the same boat, blind window, to fish for complements. Here Uzbek examples o`q yomg`iri, o`lim do`li buloq ko`zi.
Examples of genuine metaphors: The lips were tight little traps the whole space was a bowl of heat; this virus carried a gun; the dark swallowed him;
Mrs. Small`s eyes boiled with excitement; the words seemed to dance …. Xademay, ularning safari qoridi. Daryo oqar, vaqt oqar, umr oqar paydar-pay. Boshimdan kaptarlardekuchdi ming-minglab xauol. Gullar go`yo eshitar ta`zim.
Very often trite metaphors are given new force and their primary dead meaning is created a new. It is achieved by introducing new additional images. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged: “Our family rivulet joined other streams and the stream was a river pouring into St. Thomas Church” (J. Steinbeck).
Jimjitlik bor joyda xayot so`nadi. Jimjitlik toshni xam, ko`ngilni xam emiradi. Tingan suvni qurt bosadi.
Thus, trite metaphors regain freshness due to the prolongation. Metaphors may have a sustained form in cases with genuine metaphors as well.
Usually a metaphor may be expressed by any part of speech.
The main function of the metaphor is to create images. Genuine metaphors create bright images in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are widely used in newspaper and scientific style. Here it is not a shortcoming of style. They help the author make the meaning more concrete and brighten his writing as it is an indispensable quality of human thought and perception.
There is an opinion according to which metaphor is defined as a compressed simile. Prof. I.R. Galper in considers this approach as misleading because metaphor identifies objects while simile finds some point of resemblance and by this keeps the objects apart. He says their linguistic nature is different.
When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and human qualities, we have the cases of personification:
Slowly, silently, now the moon
Walks the night in her silvery shoon
This way and they and that the she peers and sees
Silver fruit upon silver trees
Here the examples of personification (jonlantiruvchi) of Uzbek languages. Xozir Farg`ona bog`larida to`kin kuz. O`rikzorlar tukini o`zgartirib boshiga olov rang qip-qizil durra bog`lagan. Tutzorlar boshida malla qalpoq.
Metonymy—is a transfer of meaning based upon the association of contiguity-proximity. In metonymy the name of one thing is applied to another with which it has some permanent or temporary connection: He felt as though he must find a sympathetic intelligent ear (Th drieser).
Guldur etib, bulut tarqab
Yalt-yult etib chaqmoq chaqdi,
Ishchi bobo seskansang-chi!
Sharqqa quyosh chinlab chiqdi!
In this Uzbek example the word “sharq” means countries and notions of East.
The transfer of meanings may be based on temporal spatial, casual, functional, instrumental and other relations.
Like metaphors metonymy can be divided into trite metonymy-i.e. words of metonymic origin and genuine metonymy.
In trite metonymy the transferred meaning is established in the semantic structure of the word as a secondary meaning. In the course of time its figurativeness and emotional colouring fades away.
Eg: nickel, the coin of the US and Canada worth 5cent: hand, a workman; bench, a judge; cradle, the place where something begins; grave, death;house, the people voting after a debate. Qo`l-ishchi kuchi, beshik boshlang`ich joy
If the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings stands out clearly then we can speak about the expressiveness of metonymy and in this easy we have genuine metonymy .In order cases we have only one of the lexicological problems –how new words and meanings are coined .In most traditional metonymies the contextual meanings are fixed in dictionaries and have a note –fig .Metonymy may be divided into figures of speech established in the language and individual speech. Metonymy established in the language is frequent in colloquial speech. E.g. the whole table was stirring with impatience .e.g. the people sitting round the table were impatient.Terim paytida ko’p qo’l kerak buladi.Uning qalami qasos o’ti bilan yonardi .Green fingers ,people who have skill for growing gardens blue –collars-workers, a symbol of non-manual labor .