9. Reasoning of Denyse Jenkins
«I take a culture in the context of the symbols and values which personality’s dynamically create or create again on your own in the process of development known more or less. A culture, thus, is the orientation of methods of sensation, thought, and life in the world is their unrealized mean of experience, interpretation and action. Context culture there is that, through what every human experience and action - including emotions - must be interpreted. This look to the culture tries to see her as something shown, contested and temporal, living space is whereby opened for theorizing about individual and family changeability, and opinions are eliminated of culture as about something static, homogeneous and it is necessary divided or even coherent. I would say that such conception of culture was решающе important for the comparative study of psychical pathology. She plugs in itself determination experience and subjectivities, which simultaneously darkened by limitation of the discussed aspects of problem and taking of her to the general line from which individuals and groups can deviate and deviate» often.
10. Reasoning of Jerome Barkow
A «culture is an informative pool, and individual, is an active swimmer. From the point of view of evolutional psychology a culture is the reservoir of different categories of information, processed by the brain of different ways. An individual takes away informative units, "edits" them, modifies, and, most important, uses them. How does an individual use cultural information? We use a culture in свих interests, so that she developed, our инклюзивную adaptability. From here follows also, that a culture is the arena of conflict, because individuals and factions take away ideological information, corresponding to their interests, and in the same time try to convince other, that this ideology serves to all. Not implied here, that human creatures are conscious hypocrites; rather, we cheat itself (self-deceit is highly-adaptation in attempts to influence on a conduct other). Information in a cultural source can be poorly by adaptation (maladaptive). For every this individual, some socially reported information which a culture consists of serves rather to interests other, what in the own interests. Other processes can also have the result of badly by adaptation cultural information, as in those cases, when ecology changes or, when seeming adaptation strategy has negative long-term consequences (for example, fishing a network can be successful only during set time, but essentially she conduces to exhaustion of supplies of fish). That some cultural information, probably, is badly by adaptation, for some or all individuals, adjustment of such information» supposes.
11. Reasoning of Sara Harkin’s
Anthropologists and psychologists jointly participated in theoretical changes in концептах of culture and personality. The Central metaphor in actualization of conceptions of culture is the "outwardly-internal" measuring of contrast. A culture was examined as providing surroundings for thought and action of individual from one side, as a system of internal rules, managing such activity - with other. The external displays of "foods" of culture contrasted with an internal "cultural informative fund" or beliefs and values which create them. A conduct which can be directly observed contrasts with ideas; emotions and systems of value which more hidden from supervision. For many the realization was general that into the area of psychological anthropology there was moving of attention for the last twenty years from "external" to "internal" actualization of conceptions of culture. I am inclined to think that "internal" side of culture always was more central for psychological anthropologists, and that our feeling of change in that behalf is exaggerated. For example, Klayd Klakhon in an essay about "концепте of culture", which was first published in 1945, concluded that «basic стрежень of culture consisted of traditional ideas (id est historically derivative), and values" especially related to them. John Waiting also in 1960 characterized a culture as "formulation of general symbolic determinants of conduct».
«At the same time research of linguistic socialization and research of development of the emotionally-meaningful systems is related to more general theme about that, how the cultural models of self are studied. Anthropological research into a когнитивной scientific paradigm provides scopes for the study of this question. As H. Kvin and D. Holland determine, cultural models divide understanding, which "build experience, delivering interpretations of this experience and conclusion about him, and aims for an action».Research of cultural models used a discourse (taking place naturally or in the context of interview with a researcher) analysis for the production of partners of statements, that and metaphors which constitute the cultural systems of value. One striking opening which took place as a result of this research - it "thematic" of cultural models from different areas into one culture. An example is this use of the ideas of «independence» constructed in a civilized manner in the American theories of parents about a conduct and development of child. The American parents use general cultural models for development of specific models of development in babyhood, which allow adjusting obviously the negative conduct of child to in a civilized manner valuable. There is difficulty in researches of cultural models, which originates from distinction between a theory and methods. It was assumed from a theoretical side, that cultural models had motivational and emotional measuring. Nevertheless in the concentration on the "internal" variant of culture, research of cultural models is actually based exceptionally rather on a discourse analysis, than conducts. A question about that, how an idea is related to the action, is problematic and even more problematic in the context of cultural analysis, but exactly on the study of him it is needed to send future research. Other question: as do cultural models get development in the process of human development? D. Holand and Dj. Velsner compare the idea of cultural models to the idea about the «auxiliary mechanisms» of Vigotskiy suppose that «prospect of development of internal forms through social interaction Vigotskiy can be used for anthropological research of development in a civilized manner the divided concepts». Anthropological thought and research of human development suffered a change in paradigms from the oriented sphere of research of school of Wayting to more modern researches which focus on the cognition models of culture, accessible mainly through a language. I supposed that this methodological change had been by the result of change in that, how a culture and personality transform simultaneously.Especially important in that behalf there is a new prospect, developing from cognition approaches in a few areas, which examine human development as actively acquired and created knowledge that, how the world «works», and that he means for personality, above-ground in him. In the process of this pragmatic change we get some new powerful facilities for the study of culture, especially analysis of foods of language, however lose conducts in systematic supervisions, which characterize more early work in this area. It appears especially obvious in attitude toward researches which are based fully on an interview with informants, but it also truly and in regard to research in socio of linguistic tradition which systematic focuses only on the certain specified types of vocal events. One of research scopes, which include simultaneously both a cognition prospect and prospect led, there is an idea of «niche of development», offered К. Saper and S. Harknes. Niche of development - it theoretical scope for the study of the cultural adjusting of microenvironment of child, and she tries to describe this surroundings from the point of view of child in an order to understand the processes of development and acquisition of culture. Niche of development has three main subsystems, which operate jointly as more large system, and each of which operates concertedly with other properties of culture. It: (1) physical and social surroundings, a child lives in which; (2) customs of care of child and education managed in a civilized manner; and (3) psychology of educators.These three subsystems have general a function of the mediated experience of development of individuals into a large culture. Practices are in these subsystems, and also thematic succession of one stage of development determined in a civilized manner with the following, provide material from which a child extracts the social, emotional and cognitive rules of culture, as rules of grammar are extracted from practice of vocal surroundings. These scopes appeared suitable for the analysis of many aspects of development of child and life of family in a cultural context.
12. Reasoning of Elisabeth Thomson
An enormous number of researches of cultural distinctions in options and beliefs is implicit legal interest to affecting of "culture" psychological variables. However, it is actually impossible to differentiate influences of "culture" from influences of functional XOR in a measuring tool. Further, seems, has large importance finding out relations between the specific aspects of culture and complexes of options/of persuasions. Sorrowfully, that a number of cultural researches, falling under this category, is such limited, and that those which are examined are characterized or by the two-bit/pl of standards or standards, not characteristic for industrial societies nowadays and future. It is possible that this area is studied not enough by reason of disciplinary gap - social organization is examined mainly in the field of sociology, and setting - in the field of psychology.
13. Reasoning of Robert Taylor
Three types of the phenomena (customs, actions or artifacts) are the empiric indicators of cultural lines, being classes personal customs which are so close similar with each other, that they are thought as a the same custom. Cultures consist exactly of them. Until now customs were determined without the detailed consideration of question about their substantial nature, and on this object anthropologists were not able to come to the consent. Some included artifacts as elements of culture, and other insisted, that артефакты are simply material results of cultures. Which an answer was not, it is useful to remember that артефакты cannot begin to exist without human actions, and that action often take place without production of artifacts. Because, at such approach, actions, as seems, are more fundamental, some insist on that a culture consists of conduct, id est, actions and utterances. However, other, minority among anthropologists, look at customs as on ideas. There is some divergence in a question, whether there are cultural lines from ideas, conduct and artifacts or only from one or two from transferred. It is entering in an error formulation of problem, because a conduct (actions of m of utterance) and artifacts are the empiric phenomena, id est, they can be directly looked after by sense-organs. Ideas, opposite, it is impossible to look after, but they must destroy from a conduct and artifacts. We do not look after an idea other. However we are forced to suppose that a conduct and artifacts are investigation of ideas or something a like by him into individuals. On this account, it seems useful to think of the looked after phenomena as about the empiric indicators of customs and to distinguish among them three main kinds - utterances, actions and artifacts. Ideas or certain internal forces always are in customs, and they can be expressed or as utterances or as actions; and sometimes action the result has artifacts. By additional reason, why interning forces can be examined as more fundamental, than empiric actions which they product, there is that last, rather, recur from time to time, what it is been permanent. However most anthropologists, seems, consider that cultural lines have some family constancy. If a custom is examined as to the interning individual, it is possible to answer on this question, saying that, essentially, a custom is constantly existent force into individuals. Constancy is provided intern.
Cultural elements are functionally coherent in that sense, that multiplicity of members of society of taken into account in minds as connection, regardless of they are conscious it or no. Connections in basis psychologies it, and, some, seems, is exceptionally only such, because there is no psychological reason for them. Presentation, existing in our culture, that a woman must carries bright clothes, necklaces and ear-rings in ears, is not caused with a necessity by some external terms. In essence, in some cultures men carry more bright clothes and decorations. One of types of the constrained lines is a theme, which can be certain as an interindividual value or orientation sometimes with emotional maintenance, sometimes without him, value, which related to substantial multiplicity of other lines of the examined culture. Maurice Opler, which offered this conception, looked at a theme as on "a postulate or position", [30] implicit or explicit, which usually controls a conduct and stimulates activity. Accordingly, seems, it is natural to think of these themes as at connections of different lines, which they control and stimulate.
A «culture is determined as an aggregate of complexes (sets) of individual customs which are named cultural lines (traits), and into any culture they contact with each other in whole complexes, which, in turn, are with each other in intercommunication, formulating a whole culture. Hidden customs - it such which straight are not expressed in actions, artifacts and utterances. It should be noted that there is not clear distinction between open and hidden customs, but what a cultural element is more or less open, what other custom. Explicit customs - it those, in relation to which a participant has sufficient consciousness that they can way of life expressed verbally. Implicit customs - it such in relation to which a participant does not have such consciousness. Any culture has a great number of implicit customs, and frequently in a civilized manner to find an alien observer is much easier, than native out them. Also as it took place in case with the hidden and open customs, there are different degrees of implicit and explicit among cultural lines».
A «ideal culture consists of lines, shown in utterances and written in reports of members of society about that they do, what they believe in, or that they are necessary to do or in what it is necessary to believe. They are ideal in that sense that often are in contradiction with that people really think and do. The last is that, which anthropologists named the real culture, but it sometimes conduced to the erroneous conclusion that ideal lines are something less, than the authentic cultural phenomena».
«Distinction between effective and ineffective customs rarely, if in general some time done by anthropologists, but these concepts are useful to pointing something substantial, touching nature of cultures. Considerable part of maintenance of any culture consists of knowledge of all births of things and ideas which have potential, but unrealized consequences in life of participants».
14. Reasoning of Peggy Miller
«In symbolic anthropology interest to дискурсу arose up as an attempt to get around more dynamic conceptions of culture. Brigs marks on this occasion «walking away from the analysis of culture as monolithic and static education and passing to the analysis of ways of influence of the cultural systems on the events of individual life». Like motion is caused partly by theoretical developments of contiguous disciplines, busy a study conservative practices of everyday life (Burd’e, Hoffman, Garfinkel, Vigotskiy). The trend marked in addition is related to the discussions concerning cultural interpretation. Those, who studies interpretations on co-operations of ethnographer and informant, have neither a culture nor context as given. Culture of dialogical and a context are set by discourse. Therefore conception of Girc, where a culture is text, and interpretation is description, suffices: she underestimates the direct context of co-operation: that is exactly said, how it is said and to whom. The current situation of culture" is lost.
15. Reasoning of Alexandra Jeffry
Modern achievements in cultural researches meet in their accent on the autonomy of culture from a social structure. The value of ideology or system of dogma cans not must be read from a social conduct; he must be studied as pattern in itself. Going near a culture differ in one from other description that exactly means such autonomy. Some consider, that knowledge of this independently organized cultural system suffices for understanding of reasons and value of social conduct, other, that this system must be understood as created according to sample processes which already exist in the most social system. Concrete processes for fastening of culture, social structure and action also differ undoubtedly, ranged from a religious ritual, socialization and education to the dramaturgic innovation and forming of class-consciousness. Finally, there is extraordinary disagreement regarding that topically is into the most cultural system. Is there a culture by the complex of logically associate symbols or she estimates that asserts the desired social internals? Is there she by the emotionally loaded symbols, touching sacred or sold? Each of these arguments possesses one element of truth. We cannot understand a culture without attitude toward a subjective value, and we cannot understand her without attitude toward social structural limitations. We cannot interpret a social conduct without realization that he follows кодам which it does not invent; in the same time, human ingenuity creates changing surroundings for every cultural coda. The inherited metaphysical ideas form a difficult spider web for modern social structures; however, powerful groups often succeed in transforming of cultural structures in legal facilities. Distinctions between goings near a culture must be respected, because a culture and society are difficult things. A culture cannot be studied into the scopes of separate school or even into more wide borders of separate discipline. Anthropology, history, political science, sociology, philosophy, linguistics, literary analysis - each of them did the distinctive deposit. If each of distinctions, which we examined, specifies on some measuring of reality, then distinctions together will specify on more general prospect which can bind every measuring to other. Discussing these distinctions in eksplicitno theoretical terms and organizing them round the theme of cultural autonomy, this essay made an effort define key terms which any more general prospect" can include.