Insecticides for pest control are applied to soil and crops in the form of granules, dust, or liquid sprays. A variety of mechanical spraying and dusting equipment is used to spread chemicals on crops and fields; the machinery may be self-powered, or drawn and powered by a tractor. In areas where large crops of vegetables and grain are grown, aircraft are sometimes used to dust or spray pesticides.
Chemical pesticides are used in nearly all farming operations undertaken in developed countries. However, increasing concern over the harmful effects that pesticides may have on the environment has led to the use of alternative forms of pest control. For example, farmers use crop rotation to prevent pests that feed on a certain crop. Also, certain pests are controlled by introducing an organism that damages or kills the pests, but leaves the crops unharmed. Finally, some crops are being genetically engineered to be more resistant to pests.
Implements for Harvesting Crops
Most cereal crops are harvested by using a combine— a machine that removes the fruiting heads, beats off the grain kernels, and cleans the grain as the combine moves through the fields. The cleaned grain is accumulated in an attached grain tank.
Wheat and other cereal crops are harvested by a combine which, as it moves along the rows, picks the ears from the stalks and husks them. The ears are then transferred either to a sheller, which removes the kernels from the ear, or to a vehicle trailing behind the machine.
Hay harvesting usually requires several steps. First, the hay is cut close to the ground with a mower. After drying in the sun, most hay is baled. In baling, the pickup baler lifts the hay to a conveyor that carries it to a baling chamber, which compresses the hay into bales weighing up to 57 kg or more and ties each bale with heavy twine or wire. A machine called a field chopper cuts down green hay or field-cured hay for use as animal feed. After being cut down, the hay is stored in a silo and allowed to ferment; this type of animal feed is nutritious and resistant to spoilage.
Specialized machinery is also used to harvest large root crops such as potatoes and sugar beet and to harvest fruits and vegetables. Some mechanical fruit-pickers that are used to harvest tree fruits, such as plums, cherries, and apricots shake the fruit tree, causing the fruit to fall on to a raised catching frame that surrounds the tree. Nut crops can also be harvested in this manner.
Use of agricultural machinery substantially reduces the amount of human labour needed for growing crops. The average amount of labour required per hectare to produce and harvest corn, hay, and cereal crops has fallen to less than a quarter of what was required only a few decades ago.
Предлоги, обозначающие движение
to движение по направлению к предмету (лицу), протекающему процессу:
Come to me. — Подойдите ко мне.
from движение от предмета (лица), удаление от протекающего процесса:
Take this book from the table.— Убери книгу со стола. '
I come from Russia. — Я из России.
into движение внутрь ограниченного пространства:
Put the book into the bag. — Положи книгу в портфель.
out of движение из ограниченного пространства:
Take the book out of the table. — Достань книгу из стола.
on(to) /onto движение на поверхность:
Snow fell onto the ground. — Снег падал на землю.
throughчерез, сквозь: Не went in through the door. —Он вошел через дверь.
Предлоги, обозначающие место
at местонахождение у предмета (лица), а также там, где протекает определенный процесс:
I am sitting at the table. — Я сижу у стола.
I study at school. — Я учусь в школе.
The pupils are at the lesson. —Ученики на уроке.
in местонахождение внутри ограниченного пространства:
Не is in the office. — Он в офисе.
The books are in the bag. — Книги в портфеле.
on местонахождение на поверхности:
The book is on the desk. — Книга на столе.
under местонахождение под другим предметом:
The book is under the table. — Книга под столом.
across через: My school is across the street. — Моя школа находится через дорогу.
above Местонахождение над другим предметом:
There is a lamp above the table. — Над столом висит лампа.
between между: Between us. — Между нами.
in front of местонахождение предмета (лица) впереди другого предмета (лица)
There is a telephone in front of him. — Перед ним стоит телефон.
behind местонахождение предмета (лица) позади другого предмета (лица),
There is a sport ground behind our school. — За нашей школой спортплощадка.
around местонахождение одного предмета вокруг другого предмета:
We are sitting around the table. — Мы сидим вокруг стола.
beyond по ту сторону: Beyond the limits of the city. — За пределами города.
over над, через, сверх: There is a bridge over the river. — Над рекой мост.
near вблизи, около, рядом с, возле, за:
She is sitting near the table. — Она сидит за столом.
up вверх: Up the river. — Вверх по реке.
down вниз: Down the river. — Вниз по реке.
Предлоги времени
in внутри временного отрезка: In April, in 1999. — В апреле, в 1999 году.
in через некоторое время: in an hour, in two days через час, через два дня
at в (точка во времени) at 5 o’clock, at midnight – в 5 часов, в полночь
on в (с названием дней недели, датами): on Monday, on the 10th of February - в понедельник, 10 февраля
by к определенному моменту: by 8 o'clock tomorrow — к 8 часам завтра
from... till / from... to... от... до: from 5 till 6 o'clock/from 5 to 60' clock — с 5-ти до 6-ти
for в течение (отрезок времени): for an hour — в течение часа
during во время (чего-либо): during the lesson— во время урока
after после (чего-либо): after work — после работы
before перед (чем-либо): before the lesson- перед уроком
within внутри, в рамках: within a month — в течение месяца
Прочие предлоги
bупри, около, посредством: by the window, by plane — около окна, самолетом
with вместе с: with a friend– с другом
for для: I'll do it for you. - Я сделаю это для тебя.
Наиболее употребительные наречия.
Наречия места и направления:
here — здесь, тут
there — там
somewhere — где-то, где-нибудь
anywhere — везде, повсюду, где-нибудь
nowhere — нигде
inside — внутри
outside — снаружи
down — внизу
back — сзади, назад
away — вдали, вон, прочь
downward — вниз
upward — вверх
Наречия времени:
now — сейчас, теперь
before — до, перед, прежде
ever — когда-либо
never — никогда
always — всегда
often — часто
usually — обычно
seldom — редко
still — все еще
already — уже
just — только что, только
yet — еще, уже
sometimes — иногда
today — сегодня
tomorrow — завтра
yesterday — вчера
recently — недавно
lately — в последнее время
commonly — обычно
Наречия образа действия:
slowly — медленно
quickly — быстро
easily — легко
calmly — спокойно
brightly — ярко
hardly — с трудом, едва
Наречия меры и степени:
much — много, сильно
little — немного, мало
enough — достаточно
too — слишком
almost — уже, почти
very — очень
Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы существительных
-er/or — teacher, writer, actor, doctor
-ist — scientist, artist
-ment — movement, development, government
-ess — fortress, hostess, actress
-ian — musician, technician, politician
-ance — distance, importance, appearance
-(t)ion — revolution, translation, operation
-ity/'ty — popularity; honesty, morality, ability
-hood — childhood, neighborhood
-у — energy, assembly
-ship — friendship, leadership
-age — passage, marriage
-ism — heroism, socialism, capitalism
-ant — assistant, consultant
-ence — conference, silence, difference
-ure — culture, picture, agriculture
-ing — building, reading, meeting
-dom — freedom, kingdom, wisdom
-sion/ssion — revision, session, discussion,
-ness — happiness, illness, darkness (-s)ure — pleasure, treasure, measure
II. Префиксы существительных
re — reconstruction,
со — cooperation, coexistence
dis — disadvantage, discomfort, distaste
in — inaccuracy, independence
mis — misunderstanding, misprinting, misinformation
im — impossibility, impatience
un — unemployment, unconcern, unreality
il — illegality, illiteracy.
Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы глаголов
I. Суффиксы
en — deepen, lighten, strengthen;
fy — classify, electrify, specify
ize — organize, characterize, mechanize
ate — indicate, activate, translate
со — cooperate, coexist, collaborate
de — decode, decompose, demobilize
dis — disbelieve, disapprove, disappear
in — input, inlay, incut, indraw
im — immigrate, impart, implant;
inter — interact, interchange, interdepend
ir — irradiate, irrigate, irritate
over — overcome, overheat, overhear, overlook
re — readjust, rebuild, reconstruct, rewrite
mis — misprint, misunderstand, miscount.
Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы прилагательных
-ful — careful, beautiful, useful, powerful
-ant — distant, important, resistant
-ous — famous, dangerous, various
-ed — talented, developed, interested
-ing — interesting, disappointing
-al — natural, cultural, territorial
-ent — dependent, transparent, different
-ish — Spanish, British, boyish, Irish
-ibie — possible, terrible, visible, convertible
-able — comfortable, miserable
-ic — atomic, historic, poetic, heroic
-у — rainy, busy, sunny, windy, dirty
-less — hopeless, lifeless, useless, homeless
-ary — ordinary, revolutionary, necessary
-ive — inventive, effective, impressive, detective
-ian — Russian, Canadian, Rumanian
II. Префиксы
un — unhappy, unable, uncomfortable
in — independent, indirect, invisible
dis — disappointing, discouraging, disconnecting
im — impossible, imperfect, immoral, immaterial
non — non-ferrous, non-governmental
ir — irregular, irresponsible, irrational
post — post-war, post-operational
inter — interdependent, interchangeable, international
il — illegal, illiberal, illimitable.
Таблица неправильных глаголов
| 2 форма | 3 форма | 4 форма | Перевод | |
| to be | was/were | been | being | быть, находиться |
| to bear | bore | born | bearing | нести |
| to beat | beat | beaten | beating | бить |
| to begin | began | begun | beginning | начинать(ся) |
| to bend | bent | bent | bending | гнуть |
| to bind | bound | bound | binding | переплетать |
| to bite | bit | bitten/bit | biting | кусать |
| to blow | blew | blown | blowing | дуть |
| to break | broke | broken | breaking | ломать |
| to bring | brought | brought | bringing | приносить |
| to build | built | built | building | строить |
| to burst | burst | burst | bursting | гореть, жечь |
| to buy | bought | bought | buying | покупать |
| to catch | caught | caught | catching | ловить |
| to choose | chose | chosen | choosing | выбирать |
| to cut | cut | cut | cutting | резать, рубить |
| to dive | dived/dove | dived | diving | нырять |
| to do | did | done | doing | делать |
| to draw | drew | drawn | drawing | рисовать, тащить |
| to drink | drank | drunk | drinking | пить |
| to drive | drove | driven | driving | вести |
| to eat | ate | eaten | eating | есть, кушать |
| to fall | fell | fallen | falling | падать |
| to feel | felt | felt | feeling | чувствовать |
| to feed | fed | fed | feeding | кормить |
| to fight | fought | fought | fighting | бороться, драться |
| to fly | flew | flown | flying | летать |
| to forbid | forbade | forbidden | forbidding | запрещать |
| to forget | forgot | forgotten | forgetting | забывать |
| to forgive | forgave | forgiven | forgiving | прощать |
| to freeze | froze | frozen | freezing | замораживать |
| to get | got | got | getting | получать, становиться |
| to give | gave | given | giving | давать |
| to go | went | gone | going | идти, ехать |
| to grow | grew | grown | growing | расти, выращивать |
| to hang | hung | hung | hanging | висеть, вешать |
| to have | had | had | having | иметь |
| to hear | heard | heard | hearing | слышать |
| to hit | hit | hit | hitting | ударять |
| to hold | held | held | holding | держать |
| to hurt | hurt | hurt | hurting | повредить |
| to know | knew | known | knowing | знать |
| to lay | laid | laid | laying | накрывать |
| to lead | lead | lead | leading | вести |
| to leap | leapt/leaped | leapt/leaped | leaping | прыгать, скакать |
| to leave | left | left | leaving | покидать, оставлять |
| to lend | lent | lent | lending | давать взаймы |
| to let | let | let | letting | позволять |
| to lie | lay | lain | lying | лежать |
| to light | lit | lit | lighting | зажигать |
| to lose | lost | lost | losing | терять |
| to make | made | made | making | делать |
| to meet | met | met | meeting | встречать (ся) |
| to pay | paid | paid | paying | платить |
| to put | put | put | putting | класть, ставить |
| to read | read | read | reading | читать |
| to ride | rode | ridden | riding | ехать (верхом) |
| to ring | rang | rung | ringing | звонить, звенеть |
| to rise | rose | risen | rising | поднимать |
| to run | ran | run | running | бежать |
| to say | said | said | saying | говорить, сказать |
| to see | saw | seen | seeing | видеть |
| to sell | sold | sold | selling | продавать |
| to send | sent | sent | sending | посещать, отправлять |
| to shake | shook | shaken | shaking | трясти |
| to shine | shone | shone | shining | светить, сиять |
| to shoot | shot | shot | shooting | стрелять, снимать |
| to show | showed | shown | showing | показывать |
| to sing | sang | sung | singing | петь |
| to sink | sank | sunk | sinking | тонуть |
| to sit | sat | sat | sitting | сидеть |
| to sleep | slept | slept | sleeping | спать |
| to speak | spoke | spoken | speaking | говорить, разговаривать |
| to spend | spent | spent | spending | тратить, проводить время |
| to stand | stood | stood | standing | стоять |
| to steal | stole | stolen | stealing | воровать, украсть |
| to stick | stuck | stuck | sticking | прилипать |
| to strike | struck | struck | striking | бить, ударять |
| to swear | swore | sworn | swearing | клясться |
| to sweep | swept | swept | sweeping | мести, подметать |
| to swim | swam | swum | swimming | плавать |
| to take | took | taken | taking | взять, брать |
| to teach | taught | taught | teaching | учить, обучать |
| to tear | tore | torn | tearing | рвать |
| to tell | told | told | telling | сказать, сообщать |
| to think | thought | thought | thinking | думать |
| to throw | threw | thrown | throwing | бросать, кидать |
| to wake | woke | woken | waking | будить, просыпаться |
| to wear | wore | wakened | wearing | носить |
| to weep | wept | wept | weeping | плакать |
| to win | won | won | winning | побеждать, выигрывать |
| to write | wrote | written | writing | писать |