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Grammar

NOMINAL& VERBAL NATURE:

1.Nominal:

-canperform the function of subject(swimming is delightful there),object(I like making people happy), predicative(my favorite sport isfigure-skating.

-canbe preceded by a preposition(I’m very fond of flying).

-can bemodified by a noun in the possessive case or by a possessivepronoun(Is any objection to my seeng her?)

2.Verbal:

-thegerund of transitive verbs can take a direct object(I have made aprogress in understanding his speech).

-canbe modified by an adverb(she burst out crying bitterly)

-hastense distinctions, the gerund of transitive verbs has also voicedistinctions.(indefinite-he can swim without tiring, &perfect-she denies having spoken with him, passive & active-heliked neithe reading aloud, neither being read aloud to)

PREDICATIVECONSTRUCTIONS:

  1. ComplexSubject - There is no use you telling me not to worry.

  2. ComplexPredicative – My idea of holiday is going to the seaside.

  3. ComplexObject – Perhaps you wouldn’t mind his coming in.

  4. ComplexAttribute – I like the idea of Michael’s going with us.

  5. ComplexAdverbial modifier – I went to the cinema in spite of herhaving told me her impressions.

Allforms are used. The nominal Element may be expressed:

Aliving being:

  1. Bya noun in the Possessive Case. (I like the idea of Michael’sgoing with us.

  2. Bya Possessive pronoun. (The day passed without her resolving thisproblem).

  3. Bya noun in the common case. When the doer of the action isemphasized. -He denied Mary having done this on purpose. When thenominal element consists of 2 or more nouns( I insist on Mary &Kate spending their free-time together.

  4. Bya pronoun in the objective case. (Do you mind them going there?)

Alifeless thing:

  1. Bya possessive pronoun (he insisted on its (the letter) being sentimmediately.

  2. Bya noun in the common case(Everything depends on the letters beingsent in time).

  3. Bypronouns all, this, that, both, each, something(I couldn’tdeny both of them having had a nice holiday).

SUBJECT.

Allforms are used.

IGA-It’sgood your trying to find the right answer.

IGP-Theirbeing late disappointed them.

PGA-Hishaving lost the right way was a great disappointment to us.

PGP-Mike’shaving been put in this position irritated us.

Thegerund may follow a predicate – the sentence opens withintroductory it. It’s no use talking like that to me.

Introductory“there is no” – there is no deceiving him, he canread my face like a book.

Complex

PREDICATIVE:

OnlyIGA- The only remedy for such a headache is going to bed;& IGP –what annoyed me most of all was his accepting their proposal quitereadily.

PARTOF A COMPOUND VERBAL PREDICATE:

Aspect:IGA - In the night it started raining.

Modal:IGA – I couldn’t help playing this game, IGP – Icouldn’t help being excited when I was told the news.

Verbswith which the g forms a CAP: keep on, go on, give up, leave off,burst out, finish, stop, cease, begin, start, continue.

Modal:with the modal expression can’t help.

DIRECTOBJECT:

Afterverbs: avoid, be busy, can’t afford, can’t bear, deny,deserve, dislike, enjoy, excuse, fancy, forget, forgive, hate, like, mind, need, postpone (откладывать),prefer, put off, recollect, regret, remember, require, suggest,want.

Allforms are used.

IGA– I love reading. IGP – I can’t bear being askedabout my family. PGA – he didn’t recollect such a thinghaving happened to him before. PGP – He denied the messagehaving been sent by him.

PREPOSITIONALOBJECT:

After:approve of, complain of, accuse of, suspect of, think of, boast of,be aware of, be capable of, be fond of, be pleased at, be surprisedat, agree to, object to, confess to, devote to, look forward to, getused to, get accustomed to, rely on, insist on, count on, depend on,feel like, look like, persist in, succeed in, be busy in, preventfrom, keep from, thank for, care

of.

IGA- I complained of having my letter returned. IGP – I insistedon the parcel being sent with declared value. PGA-I suspected of hishaving done the homework. PGP-He complained of having beeninterrupted by the others.

ATTRIBUTE:

After:

  • Of:chance, habit, idea, trouble, risk, method, way, custom, fear,manner, means, problem, necessity, possibility, pleasure, right,hope, intention, importance, effort, feeling, sound, gift, sign.(hewas born with the gift of winning hearts).

  • For:instruction, apology, explanation, reason, preparation, excuse,plan.(I have no instruction for using it).

  • In:experience, use, skill, interest, sense, harm, difficulty. (I haveno experience in doing such kind of work).

  • At:Astonishment, disappointment, surprise. He couldn’t concealhis astonishment at seeing them together.

ADVERBIALMODIFIER:

  • Time(after, before, on, upon, in, at) IGA-Upon waking I found myselfmuch recovered. IGP-After being looked through, the book was leftin the library.

  • Manner(by, in): IGA-The day was spent in packing. IGP-He succeeded infinishing the work by being given a helpful hand.

  • Attendantcircumstances (without, besides, instead of):IGA- I passed bywithout noticing him. IGP- Without being looked through thedocuments were signed.

  • Purpose(for):IGA-One side of the hall was used for dancing. IGP-He thanked themfor being given a good advice.

  • Condition(without,in case of): IGA-You can get tickets without booking them. IGP- Youcan’t see me without being invited.

  • Cause(for,for fear of, owing to, trough, because of): IGA-I decided to missmy classes for fear of making a fool of myself. IGP-Through beingread to, he understood the topic. PGA-I felt better for havingspent a good deal of my time abroad. PGP-He was in hospital forhaving been run by a car.

  • Concession(inspite of/despite): IGA-In spite of being busy, he did everything tohelp me. IGP-In spite of being looked through, the documents werenot signed. PGA- In spite of having visited his parents, he missedthem very much.

G& Participle:

Gmay be preceded by a preposition, may be modified by a noun in thepossessive case or by a possessive pronoun, can be used as asubject, object, predicative. As an adv mod is always preceded by apreposition. If we have a gerund as part of a compound noun, theperson denoted by the noun doesn’t perform the actionexpressed by ing-form: dancing hall-hall for dancing. If we have aparticiple used as an attribute the person denoted by the pronounperforms the action expressed by the ing-form: a dancing girl-girlwho dances. 2 interpretations: hunting dog, sewing machine.

G& VERBAL NOUN:

  • Ghas double character, verbal noun only nominal.

  • Gcan’t be used without article, verbal noun-can(I want you togive my hair a good brushing).

  • Ghas no plural form, vn-our likings are regulated by ourcircumstanses.

  • Gof a transitive verb takes a direct object: He received a lot ofletters & had given up in reading them.

  • VNcan’t take a direct object, it takes a prepositional objectwith of: She was rallying her nerves to the reading of the paper.

  • Gcan be modified by an adverb(drinking, even temperately, was a sin.VN may be modified by an adjective:Hi took a good scolding aoutclodding Sam.

Subject

  1. It’salways easy to

  2. It’shard to

  3. It’simportant to

  4. Itgives him pleasure to

  5. It’sdangerous to

  6. It’swise of him to

  7. It does people a lot of good to

  8. Itwon’t do you any harm to

  9. Ithas become his habit to

  10. Itsurprised me to

  11. Itmade me feel awkward to

  12. Itwas natural to

Partof a compound verbal modal predicate.


Partof a compound verbal aspect (вид)predicate.

1.Modal verbs: can,may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,shall, need.

2.Modal expressions hadbetter, would rather.

Theverbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,the end of the action: tobegin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, usedto+Inf, would + Inf.

Partof a compound nominal predicate.

  1. predicative

  2. partof a predicative

  1. Itis hard to please.

  2. Sheis easy to deal with.

  3. Sheis pleasant to look at.

  4. Thearticle is difficult to translate.

  5. Hewas difficult to convince.
Object(дополнение).

  1. Toorder, to agree, to forget, to remember…

  2. Tobe glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

  3. Toorder, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, toinstruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, toencourage…

  4. Tofind, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to dosmth.
Attribute(определение).

  1. Classnouns.

  2. Abstractnouns

  3. Experienceof quantity (much, little..)

  4. Indefinitepronouns (smb, anybody…)

  5. Theadjective last.

  6. Ordinalnumerals ( the 1st,2nd..)

Adverbialmodifier (обстоятельство)

  1. ofpurpose.


  1. ofresult


  1. comparison(manner) (сравнение)

  2. attendantcircumstances (сопутствующихобстоятельств)

  1. Bythe conjunctions inorder, so as.

  2. Withoutany conjunction.

  1. Toohot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)to do smth.

  2. Clever(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to dosmth.

  3. Socruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

  4. Sucha man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as todo smth.

Bythe conjunctions asif, than, as though.

Theadverb never,theparticleonly.
Parenthesis(вводныеслова).

  1. Tocut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (корочеговоря).

  2. Tosay the least (чтобы несказать больше).

  3. Totell you the truth – to speak the truth (поправде говоря).

  4. Toput it mildly (мягкоговоря).

  5. Tosay nothing of (неговоря уже)

  6. Tobe frank (откравенноговоря).
A complexobject.

Withoutthe particle to:

  1. afterverbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, toobserve, to notice, to feel)

  2. Afterverbs of compulsion (принуждение)(тоmake, to have).

  3. Afterthe verb tolet.

Withoutparticle to:

  1. Afterverbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, toexpect, to find, to understand.

  2. Afterthe verbs denoting declaring: topronounce, to declare, to report;wish & intention:to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;afterverbs denoting feeling & emotion: tolike, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

Objectiveinfinitive construction

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, towatch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(onlythe Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning ispassive we use Participle II)

Note:to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

Tohear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.Afterverbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). PerfectInfinitive is seldom used.

3.Afterverbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

  1. Afterverbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, todesire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

  2. Afterverbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, tolove, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, tosuffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by anoun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when theinfinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

  4. Afterverbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),tocause(заставить,распорядиться),toget(добиться),to have(заставить,сказать, чтобы).

  5. Withthe preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)
TheSubjective Infinitive construction.

  1. Withverbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If aprocess is expressed Participle I is used).

  2. Withverbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,to believe, to suppose.

  3. Withthe verb to make.

  4. Withverbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личноепредложение).

  5. Withthe verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

  6. Withpairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & tochance(случайно),to prove & to turn out(оказалось).
TheFor-to-Infinitive Construction

  1. TheSubject(often with the introductory it)

  2. Predicative

  3. Complexobject.

  4. Attribute.

  5. Adverbialmodifier

a)ofpurpose

b)ofresult

Subject

  1. It’salways easy to

  2. It’shard to

  3. It’simportant to

  4. Itgives him pleasure to

  5. It’sdangerous to

  6. It’swise of him to

  7. It does people a lot of good to

  8. Itwon’t do you any harm to

  9. Ithas become his habit to

  10. Itsurprised me to

  11. Itmade me feel awkward to

  12. Itwas natural to

Partof a compound verbal modal predicate.


Partof a compound verbal aspect (вид)predicate.

1.Modal verbs: can,may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,shall, need.

2.Modal expressions hadbetter, would rather.

Theverbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,the end of the action: tobegin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, usedto+Inf, would + Inf.

Partof a compound nominal predicate.

  1. predicative

  2. partof a predicative

  1. Itis hard to please.

  2. Sheis easy to deal with.

  3. Sheis pleasant to look at.

  4. Thearticle is difficult to translate.

  5. Hewas difficult to convince.
Object(дополнение).

  1. Toorder, to agree, to forget, to remember…

  2. Tobe glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

  3. Toorder, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, toinstruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, toencourage…

  4. Tofind, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to dosmth.
Attribute(определение).

  1. Classnouns.

  2. Abstractnouns

  3. Experienceof quantity (much, little..)

  4. Indefinitepronouns (smb, anybody…)

  5. Theadjective last.

  6. Ordinalnumerals ( the 1st,2nd..)

Adverbialmodifier (обстоятельство)

  1. ofpurpose.


  1. ofresult


  1. comparison(manner) (сравнение)


  1. attendantcircumstances (сопутствующихобстоятельств)

  1. Bythe conjunctions inorder, so as.

  2. Withoutany conjunction.

  1. Toohot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)to do smth.

  2. Clever(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to dosmth.

  3. Socruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

  4. Sucha man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as todo smth.

Bythe conjunctions asif, than, as though.

Theadverb never,theparticleonly.


Bythe conjunctions as if, as thought, than


Adverbnever,the participle only
Parenthesis(вводныеслова).

  1. Tocut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (корочеговоря).

  2. Tosay the least (чтобы несказать больше).

  3. Totell you the truth – to speak the truth (поправде говоря).

  4. Toput it mildly (мягкоговоря).

  5. Tosay nothing of (неговоря уже)

  6. Tobe frank (откравенноговоря).
Acomplex object.

Withoutthe particle to:

  1. afterverbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, toobserve, to notice, to feel)

  2. Afterverbs of compulsion (принуждение)(тоmake, to have).

  3. Afterthe verb tolet.

Withoutparticle to:

  1. Afterverbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, toexpect, to find, to understand.

  2. Afterthe verbs denoting declaring: topronounce, to declare, to report;wish & intention:to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;afterverbs denoting feeling & emotion: tolike, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

Objectiveinfinitive construction

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, towatch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(onlythe Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning ispassive we use Participle II)

Note:to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

Tohear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.Afterverbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). PerfectInfinitive is seldom used.

3.Afterverbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

  1. Afterverbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, todesire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

  2. Afterverbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, tolove, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, tosuffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by anoun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when theinfinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

  4. Afterverbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),tocause(заставить,распорядиться),toget(добиться),to have(заставить,сказать, чтобы).

  5. Withthe preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)
TheSubjective Infinitive construction.

  1. Withverbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If aprocess is expressed Participle I is used).

  2. Withverbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,to believe, to suppose.

  3. Withthe verb to make.

  4. Withverbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личноепредложение).

  5. Withthe verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

  6. Withpairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & tochance(случайно),to prove & to turn out(оказалось).
TheFor-to-Infinitive Construction

  1. TheSubject(often with the introductory it)

  2. Predicative

  3. Complexobject.

  4. Attribute.

  5. Adverbialmodifier

a)ofpurpose

b)ofresult


PARTICIPLEI

1.Attribute(Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

  1. Ifwe have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (inpre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ingform.(atouching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl whois laughing).

  2. ParticipleI Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & neveras an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used:The student who has shown the countries of America on the map isgoing to his seat.

  3. Sometimesthe Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to noparticular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the southof tundra.

2.Predicative(Participle I Indefinite Active).

Tobe astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to behumiliating (оскорбительно,унизительно),to be inviting (заманчивый),to be tempting(привлекательный),to be terrifying (ужасный),to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(ParticipleI Indefinite Active)

Generallyspeaking, judging by appearance (words)(судяпо внешнемувиду), mildlyspeaking(спокойно),speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughlyspeaking.

4.Adverbialmodifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PIIndefinite Passive;


PIPerfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Notknowing the topic well, he got confused.


Beingimpressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they weresilent on the way home.

Havinglost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Havingbeen left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbialmodifier of comparison.

PIIndefinite Act

Sheshivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbialmodifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

ParticipleInd Act

Ispent the morning on the cliff reading.

7.Adverbial modifier of time.

PIInd Act

PIInd Pas

PIPerf Act

PIInd Pas


  1. Theaction expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. modalways refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

  2. Withsuch verbs as tosee, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look,to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PIInd Act is used to express a prior action when the actionexpressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressedby the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I droppedthe subject.

  3. Theconjunctions ”when” & “while” areoften used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progresssimultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour ofEngland, we were impressed by its beauty.

  4. PIInd of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbialmodifier of time: “Когдая был в Москве»=”Whenin Moscow”


tThefunctions of participle II in the sentence.

  1. Attribute

PIIof transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательноепричастие orдействительноепричастие ofsome verbs ending in –сяabroken chair (сломанныйстул), anewspaper published in Moscow (газета,издаваемаяв Москве).PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (withoutany accompanying words). He answered through the lockeddoor.(Онответил черезоткрытую дверь).They turned into the large conservatory beautifullylit up with Chinese lamps.(Онисвернули внебольшуюоранжерею,красиво освещённуюкитайскимифонариками)

PIIof intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,corresponds to the Russian действительноепричастие orto an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb maybe used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs tofade(увядать),towither(искушать,губить),toretire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).Fadedleaves (увядшиелистья).

Anattribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbialmodifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attractedby the violent ringing of the ball.(Экономкавышла из своейкомнаты, привлечённаянеистовымзвоном колокольчика.)

Adverbialmodifier.

  1. Oftime


  1. Condition


  1. Comparison


  1. Concession(уступка)

PIIpreceded by the conjunctions when,while, if, as thought, etc.

Whenguestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxiousabout her brother-in-law. (КогдаЭнни сталирасспрашивать,она дала понять,что беспокоитсяо своём шурине).

Itwas a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the lawwhich, ifdiscovered,would bring them into the police court. То,что он предлагал,было ужасно:это было нарушениезакона, и, еслибы оно открылось,их отдали быпод суд.

Asif torn with inner conflict & indecision,he cried.Онплакал, словноего мучиливнутренняяборьба и сомнения.

Herspirit, thoughcrushed,wasn’t broken-хотяона и не былаподавлена,но не быласломлена.


Predicative

Inspite of himself, he was impressed. На негоэто произвеловпечатление,помимо еговоли.

Part of acomplex object

Shehas found me unaltered;but I have found her changed.Она нашла, чтоя ничуть неизменился, ая нашёл, чтоона изменилась.

TheObjective Participle Constructionis a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation toa noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case.

Itmay be found:

  1. Afterverbs denoting senseperception(to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc): Then he looked out of thewindow & sawcloudsgathering.I heardmywifecoming.She could feelherhandstremblingexceedingly. I sawtheponyharnessedmyself. You will probably findyoursistergrown.

  2. Aftersome verbs of mentalactivity:to consider, to understand: I considermyselfengagedto Herr Klemser.

  3. Afterverbs denoting wish,such as towant, to wish, to desire.In this case only Participle II is used. The governor wantsitdone quick.

  4. Afterthe verbs tohave & to get,onlyPII is used. In this case the Objective Participial Constructionshows that the action expressed by the participle is performed atthe request of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence:Thus Ihad the piano tunedmeans “I made someone tune the piano”. He had severalbottles of wine brought.Емупринесли несколькобутылок вина.Ininterrogative & negative sentences the auxiliary verb todois used: Why don’t you have your hair waved? (Почемувы не сделаетезавивку?).

Thesubjective Participial Construction.

Theconstruction in which the participle (mostly the PI) is in predicaterelation to a noun in the common case or to a pronoun in thenominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

Inrendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence isgenerally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russiansyntax is called «неопределённо-личноепредложение».

Thepeculiarity of this construction is that it doesn’t serve asone part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the functionof the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate:

Theywere hard talkingtogether.

Thisconstruction is chiefly used after the verbs of sense perception:

Thehorsewas seen descendingthe hill-Виднобыло, как лошадьспускаласьс холма.

PARTICIPLEI

1.Attribute(Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

  1. Ifwe have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (inpre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ingform.(atouching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl whois laughing).

  2. ParticipleI Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & neveras an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used:The student who has shown the countries of America on the map isgoing to his seat.

  3. Sometimesthe Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to noparticular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the southof tundra.

2.Predicative(Participle I Indefinite Active).

Tobe astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to behumiliating (оскорбительно,унизительно),to be inviting (заманчивый),to be tempting(привлекательный),to be terrifying (ужасный),to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(ParticipleI Indefinite Active)

Generallyspeaking, judging by appearance (words)(судяпо внешнемувиду), mildlyspeaking(спокойно),speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughlyspeaking.

4.Adverbialmodifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PIIndefinite Passive;


PIPerfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Notknowing the topic well, he got confused.


Beingimpressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they weresilent on the way home.

Havinglost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Havingbeen left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbialmodifier of comparison.

PIIndefinite Act

Sheshivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbialmodifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

ParticipleInd Act

Ispent the morning on the cliff reading.

7.Adverbial modifier of time.

PIInd Act

PIInd Pas

PIPerf Act

PIInd Pas


  1. Theaction expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. modalways refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

  2. Withsuch verbs as tosee, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look,to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PIInd Act is used to express a prior action when the actionexpressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressedby the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I droppedthe subject.

  3. Theconjunctions ”when” & “while” areoften used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progresssimultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour ofEngland, we were impressed by its beauty.

  4. PIInd of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbialmodifier of time: “Когдая был в Москве»=”Whenin Moscow”


tThefunctions of participle II in the sentence.

  1. Attribute

PIIof transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательноепричастие orдействительноепричастие ofsome verbs ending in –сяabroken chair (сломанныйстул), anewspaper published in Moscow (газета,издаваемаяв Москве).PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (withoutany accompanying words). He answered through the lockeddoor.(Онответил черезоткрытую дверь).They turned into the large conservatory beautifullylit up with Chinese lamps.(Онисвернули внебольшуюоранжерею,красиво освещённуюкитайскимифонариками)

PIIof intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,corresponds to the Russian действительноепричастие orto an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb maybe used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs tofade(увядать),towither(искушать,губить),toretire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).Fadedleaves (увядшиелистья).

Anattribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbialmodifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attractedby the violent ringing of the ball.(Экономкавышла из своейкомнаты, привлечённаянеистовымзвоном колокольчика.)

Adverbialmodifier.

  1. Oftime


  1. Condition


  1. Comparison


  1. Concession(уступка)

PIIpreceded by the conjunctions when,while, if, as thought, etc.

Whenguestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxiousabout her brother-in-law. (КогдаЭнни сталирасспрашивать,она дала понять,что беспокоитсяо своём шурине).

Itwas a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the lawwhich, ifdiscovered,would bring them into the police court. То,что он предлагал,было ужасно:это было нарушениезакона, и, еслибы оно открылось,их отдали быпод суд.

Asif torn with inner conflict & indecision,he cried.Онплакал, словноего мучиливнутренняяборьба и сомнения.

Herspirit, thoughcrushed,wasn’t broken-хотяона и не былаподавлена,но не быласломлена.


Predicative

Inspite of himself, he was impressed. На негоэто произвеловпечатление,помимо еговоли.

Part of acomplex object

Shehas found me unaltered;but I have found her changed.Она нашла, чтоя ничуть неизменился, ая нашёл, чтоона изменилась.

TheObjective Participle Constructionis a construction in which the participle is in predicate relation toa noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case.

Itmay be found:

  1. Afterverbs denoting senseperception(to see, to hear, to feel, to find, etc): Then he looked out of thewindow & sawcloudsgathering.I heardmywifecoming.She could feelherhandstremblingexceedingly. I sawtheponyharnessedmyself. You will probably findyoursistergrown.

  2. Aftersome verbs of mentalactivity:to consider, to understand: I considermyselfengagedto Herr Klemser.

  3. Afterverbs denoting wish,such as towant, to wish, to desire.In this case only Participle II is used. The governor wantsitdone quick.

  4. Afterthe verbs tohave & to get,onlyPII is used. In this case the Objective Participial Constructionshows that the action expressed by the participle is performed atthe request of the person denoted by the subject of the sentence:Thus Ihad the piano tunedmeans “I made someone tune the piano”. He had severalbottles of wine brought.Емупринесли несколькобутылок вина.Ininterrogative & negative sentences the auxiliary verb todois used: Why don’t you have your hair waved? (Почемувы не сделаетезавивку?).

Thesubjective Participial Construction.

Theconstruction in which the participle (mostly the PI) is in predicaterelation to a noun in the common case or to a pronoun in thenominative case, which is the subject of the sentence.

Inrendering this construction in Russian a complex sentence isgenerally used; the principal clause is of the type which in Russiansyntax is called «неопределённо-личноепредложение».

Thepeculiarity of this construction is that it doesn’t serve asone part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the functionof the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate:

Theywere hard talkingtogether.

Thisconstruction is chiefly used after the verbs of sense perception:

Thehorsewas seen descendingthe hill-Виднобыло, как лошадьспускаласьс холма.


  1. Suddenlythey heard a shout & the noise of fallingstones.

Fallingis an attribute in preposition expressed by PI Ind Act used to denotean action performed by the noun stones.

  1. Achannel is a stretch of water, joiningtwo seas of separatingtwo bodies of land. Joining& separatingare attributes in postposition expressed by PI Ind Act used todenote an action referring to no particular time.

  2. Thesoil beingcultivatednow is rich & fertile. Beingcultivatedis an attribute in postposition expressed by PI Ind Pas used todenote an action in progress simultaneous with that of the finiteverb.

  3. Thechildren sat round the fire, Friendly stars ere twinkling overhead,but dark hills round the valley seemedfrightening.Seemedfrighteningis a compound nominal predicate which consists of the link verb toseem in its Past Ind tense form & the predicative frighteningexpressed by PI Ind Act.

  4. Judgingby theirhappy facesthey enjoyed the scenery. Judgingby their facesis a participial phrase used as parenthesis.

  5. Theparty whohad settled everything with Bobset off North-West towards the hills & the mountains of theLakeland. Whohad settled everything with Bobis an attributive clause in which the finite verb denotes an actionprior to that of the finite verb of the principal clause, that’swhy PI is not used here.

  6. Whilewalkingto the pond across the meadow, the two friends saw a lot of funnygrasshoppers hopping here & there. Walkingis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PI Ind Act used todenote an action simultaneous with that of the finite verb.

  7. Whenin Lake District,the tourists saw lots of lovely lakes. PI Ind of the verb to be isnot used as an adverbial modifier of time. The clause of time whenin Lake District isused instead.

  8. Beingaskedto give his impressions of the Lake District he did it willingly.Beingaskedis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PI Ind Pas.

  9. Hearingthe drumming of the rain on the roof of the house in the night, thechildren woke up. Hearingis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PI Ind Act of the verbof sense perception to hear used to denote an action prior to thatof the finite verb as the actions expressed by PI & the finiteverb closely follow each other.

  10. Havingcrawledinto his cozy sleeping bag, he fell fast asleep. Havingcrawledis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PI Perf Act used todenote an action prior to that of the finite verb.

  11. Havingbeen giventwo loaves of bread, they left the bakery. Havingbeen givenis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PI Perf Pas.

  12. Knowingwellthe English landscape, she wasn’t struck by its “park-like”appearance. Knowingis an adverbial modifier of cause expressed by PI Ind Act.


  1. Beingcoveredwith leaf & flower in summer, the hedges look very beautiful.Beingcoveredis an adverbial modifier of cause expressed by Part I Ind Pas.

  2. Havingstudiedthe map of Great Britain, she began to learn the topic. Havingstudiedis an adverbial modifier of cause expressed by PI Perf Act.

  3. Havingbeen joinedby the canals, they make it possible to travel by water from one endof England to the other. Havingbeen joinedis an adverbial modifier of cause expressed by PI Perf Pas.

  4. Theysat down in the heather for a rest enjoyingtheview. Enjoyingis an adverbial modifier of attendant circumstances expressed by PIInd Act.

  5. Hewent carefully down asif being afraidto get lost. Beingafraidis an adverbial modifier of comparison expressed by PI Ind Act.

ParticipleII:

  1. “Don’tyou think your wife & family miss you greatly?” thoughtashamedhe asked of the unwantedvisitor. “I never thought about it,” replied the latterdelighted,“but now you put it so nicely, I will wire for them to comedown to join us.” Retiredis an attribute in pre-position, expressed by PII of theintransitive verb to retire used to denote passing into a new state.Though ashamedis an adverbial modifier of concession expressed by PII. Unwantedis an attribute in pre-position expressed by PII of the transitiveverb to want used to denote a passive meaning. Delightedis an attribute in post-position expressed by PII.

  2. Arrivingat the Washington Zoo one day just as the monkey house was beingclosed for the day, the sightseers weresurprisedwhen they heardsome terrific screams comingfrom the building. When asked, one of the keepers smiled & said,“The monkeys always act like that when we shut out thevisitors. I think they get so much fun of watching people.”Weresurprisedis a compound nominal predicate which consists of the link-verb tobe in its Past Ind tense-form & the predicative surprisedexpressed by PII. Someterrificscreams comingis a complex object expressed by the Objective ParticipialConstruction in which PI Ind Act coming denoting a process is inpredicate relation to the doer of the action expressed by theparticiple. Whenaskedis an adverbial modifier of time expressed by PII used to denote apas meaning.

  3. Isaw Annplaying.Annplayingis a complex object expressed by Objective participial construction.PI Ind Act playing is in predicative relation to the noun Ann incommon case(to the pronoun her in the objective case). After theverb of sense perception to see.

  4. Shewas walkingalong the street. She walking is a complex Subject expressed by thesubjective participial construction in which PI Ind Act is inpredicate relation to the pronoun she in the nominative case(to thenoun in the common case) which is the Subject of the sentence.



Thefunctions of participle II in the sentence.

  1. Attribute

PIIof transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательноепричастие orдействительноепричастие ofsome verbs ending in –сяabroken chair (сломанныйстул), anewspaper published in Moscow (газета,издаваемаяв Москве).PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (withoutany accompanying words). He answered through the lockeddoor.(Онответил черезоткрытую дверь).They turned into the large conservatory beautifullylit up with Chinese lamps.(Онисвернули внебольшуюоранжерею,красиво освещённуюкитайскимифонариками)

PIIof intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,corresponds to the Russian действительноепричастие orto an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb maybe used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs tofade(увядать),towither(искушать,губить),toretire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).Fadedleaves (увядшиелистья).

Anattribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbialmodifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attractedby the violent ringing of the ball.(Экономкавышла из своейкомнаты, привлечённаянеистовымзвоном колокольчика.)

Adverbialmodifier.

  1. Oftime


  1. Condition


  1. Comparison


  1. Concession(уступка)

PIIpreceded by the conjunctions when,while, if, as thought, etc.

Whenguestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxiousabout her brother-in-law. (КогдаЭнни сталирасспрашивать,она дала понять,что беспокоитсяо своём шурине).

Itwas a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the lawwhich, ifdiscovered,would bring them into the police court. То,что он предлагал,было ужасно:это было нарушениезакона, и, еслибы оно открылось,их отдали быпод суд.

Asif torn with inner conflict & indecision,he cried.Онплакал, словноего мучиливнутренняяборьба и сомнения.

Herspirit, thoughcrushed,wasn’t broken-хотяона и не былаподавлена,но не быласломлена.


Predicative

Inspite of himself, he was impressed. Нанего это произвеловпечатление,помимо еговоли.

Part of acomplex object

Shehas found me unaltered;but I have found her changed.Онанашла, что яничуть неизменился, ая нашёл, чтоона изменилась.

Subject

  1. It’salways easy to

  2. It’shard to

  3. It’simportant to

  4. Itgives him pleasure to

  5. It’sdangerous to

  6. It’swise of him to

  7. It does people a lot of good to

  8. Itwon’t do you any harm to

  9. Ithas become his habit to

  10. Itsurprised me to

  11. Itmade me feel awkward to

  12. Itwas natural to

Partof a compound verbal modal predicate.


Partof a compound verbal aspect (вид)predicate.

1.Modal verbs: can,may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,shall, need.

2.Modal expressions hadbetter, would rather.

Theverbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,the end of the action: tobegin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, usedto+Inf, would + Inf.

Partof a compound nominal predicate.

  1. predicative

  2. partof a predicative

  1. Itis hard to please.

  2. Sheis easy to deal with.

  3. Sheis pleasant to look at.

  4. Thearticle is difficult to translate.

  5. Hewas difficult to convince.
Object(дополнение).

  1. Toorder, to agree, to forget, to remember…

  2. Tobe glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

  3. Toorder, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, toinstruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, toencourage…

  4. Tofind, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to dosmth.
Attribute(определение).

  1. Classnouns.

  2. Abstractnouns

  3. Experienceof quantity (much, little..)

  4. Indefinitepronouns (smb, anybody…)

  5. Theadjective last.

  6. Ordinalnumerals ( the 1st,2nd..)

Adverbialmodifier (обстоятельство)

  1. ofpurpose.


  1. ofresult


  1. comparison(manner) (сравнение)


  1. attendantcircumstances (сопутствующихобстоятельств)

  1. Bythe conjunctions inorder, so as.

  2. Withoutany conjunction.

  1. Toohot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)to do smth.

  2. Clever(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to dosmth.

  3. Socruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

  4. Sucha man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as todo smth.

Bythe conjunctions asif, than, as though.

Theadverb never,theparticleonly.


Bythe conjunctions as if, as thought, than


Adverbnever,the participle only
Parenthesis(вводныеслова).

  1. Tocut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (корочеговоря).

  2. Tosay the least (чтобы несказать больше).

  3. Totell you the truth – to speak the truth (поправде говоря).

  4. Toput it mildly (мягкоговоря).

  5. Tosay nothing of (неговоря уже)

  6. Tobe frank (откравенноговоря).
Acomplex object.

Withoutthe particle to:

  1. afterverbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, toobserve, to notice, to feel)

  2. Afterverbs of compulsion (принуждение)(тоmake, to have).

  3. Afterthe verb tolet.

Withoutparticle to:

  1. Afterverbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, toexpect, to find, to understand.

  2. Afterthe verbs denoting declaring: topronounce, to declare, to report;wish & intention:to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;afterverbs denoting feeling & emotion: tolike, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

Objectiveinfinitive construction

1. After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, towatch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(onlythe Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning ispassive we use Participle II)

Note:to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

Tohear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.Afterverbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). PerfectInfinitive is seldom used.

3.Afterverbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

  1. Afterverbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, todesire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

  2. Afterverbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, tolove, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

  3. Afterverbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, tosuffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by anoun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when theinfinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

  4. Afterverbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),tocause(заставить,распорядиться),toget(добиться),to have(заставить,сказать, чтобы).

  5. Withthe preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)
TheSubjective Infinitive construction.

  1. Withverbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If aprocess is expressed Participle I is used).

  2. Withverbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,to believe, to suppose.

  3. Withthe verb to make.

  4. Withverbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личноепредложение).

  5. Withthe verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

  6. Withpairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & tochance(случайно),to prove & to turn out(оказалось).
TheFor-to-Infinitive Construction

  1. TheSubject(often with the introductory it)

  2. Predicative

  3. Complexobject.

  4. Attribute.

  5. Adverbialmodifier

a)ofpurpose

b)ofresult
 
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