№12. Parts of speech in E&R compare.
Both in RE the vocabulary is classified into parts of speech. The words are classified into parts of speech according to three main principals: lexical, morphological and syntactical. ER belong to the Indo-European family of the languages. They have much in common. There are many words which both in languages having the same root morpheme: sister, brother, mother, etc. Practically we find the same parts of speech in both languages. But there is not article in Russian. Words having one and the same meaning may belong to different parts of speech. (тишина, тихий, тихо; to sleep, asleep, sleepy). This shows that the lexical meaning only is not enough to classify the vocabulary into parts of speech. The Russian language is syntactical, while the English is analytical. In Russian the morphological principle is a great importance when we classify words into parts of speech. The English morphology is poor and also the syntactical principle and the combinability of words are of great importance. (a black stone, a stone wall). The parts of speech in both languages are divided into: notional words and form-words order and empty words. Such parts of speech as the noun, the verb, the adjective, the pronoun, and the stative are notional parts of speech. But the conjunction, the preposition, the particle, the article are formal parts of speech. So in both languages there are some words, which forward from one into another parts of speech.
№13. The adverb as a part of speech in E&R compare.
The adverb is a notional part of speech both in ER. Therefore it is characterized lexically, morphologically and syntactically. The lexical meaning. The adverb in both languages denotes some circumstances under which an action takes place. It may also denote some characteristics of an action or of a quality. (He has come late. Он пришел поздно. He is here. Он здесь). These adverbs express some circumstances under which an action takes place. The syntactical functions of the adverb are also the same both in ER. It performs the syntactical function that of an adverbial modifier. (He is here. Онздесь. – the adverbial modifier of place). The adverb in the 2 languages may perform the syntactical functions of different adv. Modifiers such as time, place, manner, cause, purpose and so on. (He will come tomorrow. He speaks fluently.). As to the syntactical relations of the adverb to words of other classes, it is characterized by being connected with the verb, adjective and adverb. (He runsquickly. – verb; He is veryclever. – adj; He acts verycleverly. - adverb). The adverb may be also connected with the noun, but this is not a characteristic feature of the adverb. (My friend lives in the room opposite. - noun). As to the morphological characteristics a part of adverbs in both languages has the degrees of comparison. (slowly-more slowly-the most slowly). All the adverbs in both languages are divided into 2 large groups. They are: Circumstantial, Qualitative. They are different both in their lexical meaning, grammatical char-s and word-formation. Circumstantial adverbs are those adverbs, which denote the circumstances under which an action takes place (here, there, late, здесь, теперь, там, тогда). While the qualitative adverbs do not express any external circumstances. They express the characteristics of an action or a quality. (slowly, fluently, badly). Qualitative adverbs are used in the function of an adverbial modifier of manner. (He runs quickly.) The circumstantial adverbs perform the function of adverbial modifiers but manner. (He was there. He will come tomorrow.) The circumstantial adverbs are always connected with the verb, they are unchangeable. The qualitative adverbs may be connected with verb, adj, adverb.
№14. Word-combination in E&R. Their definition and classification.
The word-combination both in ER is characterized by the following features. Practically the word-combination consist of two or more notional words (a brown table). There is an opinion that a word-combination may include two or more any words (a table, a book). Some grammarians thinks that it is a word-combination, while the sentence may be expressed by one word only, because the sentence possesses a complete intonation. The word-combination has practically no intonation. Therefore the word-combination is not a unit of communication. The word-combination has no predication. If we say “a black table” we are not quite sure what tense is meant here. Therefore the w-c has no predicative relations, such as the relation of person, tense, modality. While the main feature of the sentence is that expresses a predication. The w-c are usually build on the basis of one notional word. This notional word is usually called the pivotal word of the main word. The w-c are usually classified in accordance with their pivotal words. We may have such w-c as: 1) Substantial w-c (a red rose, краснаяроза); 2) adjectival; 3) verbal (to give lessons, to read books); 4) adverbial (quite near, совсемблизко). W-cs both in ER may be classified into: - free syntactical comb-s, phraseological units. Free syntactical combinations are such combinations the part of which may be freely replaced (a large table – a large brown table). A phraseological unit is understood as a whole and its parts are not freely replaced (to show the white feather-струсить, танцеватьотпечки-to begin from the very beginning). A w-c may also classified according to their relations between the words in them. When we may have: attributive combinations (a young man, a brown table), objective (to read a book), adverbial (coming tomorrow, читалстоя/сидя). W-c may be simple and complex. Simplex w-c usually consist of 2 notional words (a red rose, a good student). Complex w-c consist usually of more than 2 words (to travel to a big city, a big red rose). W-c may be subordinative (include pivotal words, or the pivotive words) and coordinative w-c (all the element or words of they are equal – ножиивилка, a boy and a girl).
№15. Agreement as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
Agreement is not often found in MoE, nut it is widely used in MoR. Agreement is used to adjust the form of modified word to the form of the pivotive word. (this room-these rooms, that room-those rooms, I have a book-he has a book). Agreement in MoR is found in such grammatical categories as gender, number, case, and person: 1) Full forms of adjectives in MoR agree with corresponding nouns in gender, number and case (широкийзалив, широкаярека, широкоеозеро – gender; широкийзалив – широкогозалива – case; широкийзалив – широкиезаливы – number). In plural no agreement in gender is observed (широкиезаливы – no gender). 2) Short forms of adjective do not agree in case. In singular they agree in gender, number (городкрасив, площадькрасива – gender; городкрасив – городакрасивы – number). In Plural they agree only in number. Cardinal-numerals in case (пятидомов, пятьюдомами). Verbs in Future and Present Tenses agree in number and person (ученикпишет, ученикипишут).
№16. Government as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
Government is a variety of syntactical connection in accordance with which the use of the oblique case is dependent upon the grammatical meaning of the pivotal word. Government found both in ER. In English government is used to join together 2 nouns: the noun-attribute usually is used in the Possessive Case. (A boy’s book – boys’ books, A day’s holiday, an hour’s absence). Government is used in verbal combinations where the object is expressed by a personal pronoun (Believe me, help him). Prepositional government is more frequently used in MoE (to rely on him, to depend upon him). The verb governments through the preposition. In MoR governing words may be expressed by different parts of speech: 1) by a noun (крылоптицы); 2) by an adjective (склонныйкшуткам); 3) by a numeral (двадцатьдеревьев); 4) by a pronoun (кто-тоизбратьев); 5) by an Infinitive (поливатьулицу); 6) by an adverb (жаркоотсолнца). A noun or a noun-equivalent usually expresses governed words (извлекатьполезное, уважениекстаршим). In accordance with the part of speech the governing word belongs to, government in MoR is subdivided into: substantial (осмотрздания – gen. case), adjectival (интересныйдлязрителя – gen. case with a prep.), adverbial (делатьвесело, емуприятно), verbal (осматриватьздание – accusative case, доверитьврагу – dative case).
№17. Adjoining as a mode of syntactical connection in word-combination in ER compare.
Adjoining is a variety of syntactical connection when the dependence of one word upon another is expressed not morphologically but semantically (My room-my rooms, a small room-small rooms). In MoR the mostly spread adjoining is when an adverb is subordinated. Pivotal words may be expressed by different parts of speech:
1) byaverb (твердо усвоен, хорошо написан),
2) by a stative (вполневозможно),
3) by an adjective (почтичерный),
4) by an adverb (оченьслабо),
5) by a noun (ездашагом).
The Infinitive as well may be subordinated (пошелзаниматься, жальрасставаться). Sometimes деепричастие maybesubordinated (разговаривая смотрел на собеседника).
№18. The sentence. Its features in ER compare. 3 main ways of word connection in the sentence.
Syntax is closely connected with morphology, but it is an independent part of grammar. It studies word-combinations and sentences. The main features of a sentence: 1) the sentence expresses a complete thought while w-c does not. (Cf: The table is brown. A brown table.); 2) the sentence has a definite intonation and that is why may consist only of one word, while the w-c consists of two or more words; 3) the sentence has a verb in a finite form (Cf: the weather is nice, the nice weather); 4) the sentence expresses predication that is the relation between what is said to reality.
The action may be real, unreal, possible, probable and so on. The action in the sentence may be referred to Present, Past or Future. The w-c in a sentence may be connected in 3 ways: - the lexical way, the grammatical and the phonetical way.
The lexical way is the connection of words according to their lexical meaning (мальчикчитатькнига – boy read book). Of course, the lexical way is not enough. The given sentences are understandable but they are not expressed grammatically. We don’t know the time of an action; we don’t know the type of the sentence. So, words in a sentence must be connected grammatically. There are 3 main grammatical ways of word connection in a sentence: 1) the forms of words, 2) the form-words and 3) the word order.
1.The forms of words are not typical of the English language, because the morphological system of it is poor. This way is typical of the Russian language. (I/You/We(S/he) read(s) a book, Ячитаю, тычитаешь…).
2. The form-words is of a great importance in MoE. It is also wider spread in MoR. Form-words in ER are subdivided into: 1) the determinative form-words (we refer: in English – articles and particles while in Russian – only particles) and 2) connectives (both in ER we refer prepositions and conjunctions).
3. The word-order in MoE is of a great importance. In MoR the word-order in the sentence is rather free. While in English the first place is usually occupied by the subject, the second place is occupied by the Predicate, the third place – by the object, the fourth place – by the adverbial modifier. (Ann sees John - АнявидитДжона. John sees Ann (not equal) ДжонавидитАня).
№19. Classification sentences according to the type of communication in ER compare.
Both in English and in Russian sentences may be classified according to: 1) types of communication and 2) structure.
According to the types of communication sentence in both languages are divided into: 1) declarative, 2) interrogative and 3) imperative.
A Declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. There is a great difference between English and Russian negative sentences. An English sentence may have only one negation while the Russian sentence one may have more than one. (Nobody was late. - Никтонеопоздал.) An Interrogative sentence asks a question. In English there are four winds of questions: general, special, alternative and disjunctive. (Do you want…?, Where do you want…?, Do you want …or…?, You want…, don’t you?). Russian interrogative sentence may be divided into 2 groups: 1) Interrogative sentence having no interrogative words, sometimes they may contain such particles as ведь, как, что, неужели, разве, ли, and etc. In such cases they differ from declarative sentence in intonation. (Инженер поехал в Москву? Его здесь нет? Разве он вам писал? Неужелионушел?); 2) Interrogative sentences having interrogative words, such as кто, что, куда, откуда, почему (Ктопришел? Что вы читаете?). Special attention must be paid to the indirect questions the rules of sequence of tenses must be observed.
Imperative sentences serve to induce a person to do something. They express a command, a request, an invitation, a wish, a demand, a call and so on. Declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences may be exclamatory when they express a strong emotion (happiness, delight, anger, etc). (What a lovely day it is! Howwonderful!) (Москва как много в этом звуке…).
№20. Classification sentences according to the structure in ER compare.
According to the structure sentences are divided into: two-member and one-member sentences. A two-member sentence has two members: the subject and the predicate. (Pete reads. Mary writes.) A two-member sentence may be: complete and incomplete 2 member sentences. The complete has both the subject and the predicate. The incomplete is a sentence then one of the principle parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the sentence. Such sentences are called elliptical. (Where are you going? – To the cinema.) Elliptical sentences are usually met in colloquial speech and dialogues. A one-member sentence is a sentence, which has only one member, which is neither the subject nor the predicate. One member makes the sentence complete. One-member sentences are generally used in description and in emotional speech. If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun and the sentence is called nominal. (Dusk-of the summer night. Зима, крестьянин торжествует). A simple sentence may be extended (has both the principle parts of the sentence and the secondary parts. E.g. Pete reads book everyday.) and unextended (has only the subject and the predicate). Sentences in both languages may be composite. Composite sentences are divided into: compound and complex. A compound is a sentence which consist of two or more clauses coordinated with each other. (The darkness was thinning, but the street was still dimly lighting. Прозрачны лес один чернеет…). A complex sentence consist of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (He steps quicken as he set out from the hotel.) Subordinated clauses may be of different types: subject (Where I am going is unknown), object, predicative (with link-verb), attributive, adverbial.