Gender: This is a biological distinction of female or male. Issues concerning gender are debated and they initiate myths and unsupported opinions of whether females can perform as well as males on the job (Robbins). Age: This basically distinguishes which generation one belongs to, and for how many years. Age is a precursor in topics of importance during the 90s due to such assumptions that older employees show a decrease in productivity with age. Between the years 1990 and 2005, the number of people 55 and older will jump to approximately 43.7% of our population. It is for reasons such as this, that laws have been enacted to protect and outlaw many business practices concerning the aged, such as mandatory, early retirement. Ethnicity: This relates to a person?s identification with a cultural group that shares the same traditions, heritage, and national origin. It designates the basic divisions of humankind as distinguished by customs, characteristics, language, and meaning. Usually, these aspects within each, create a different response to daily life and must be dealt with effectively. Race: This is the biological grouping within humankind, representing superficial physical differences such as slanted eyes, skin and hair color, and other physical traits. Race is only deemed important because people make it an issue, and carry this issue into their daily lives or the organizational setting. Physical abilities or qualities: This includes body type, physical size, facial features, and abilities or disabilities, visible and invisible physical and mental talents or limitations. There are fifteen million American workers who have moderate or severe disabilities that do not interfere with their lives enough to make them unemployable (Mergernhagen). Obesity is included in this category. Based on several studies, there seemed to be an inverse relationship between obesity and earnings. Employers tended to punish obese workers as a compensation for the distaste they personally have for these people. So, in 1971, the Supreme Court set the precedent on obesity-based wage discrimination, and in 1993 a federal appeal court, with the support of the EEOC, ruled that ?morbidly obese? people were protected under the American?s with Disabilities Act of 1990 (Pagan, Davila). Sexual and Affectionate Orientation: This dimension is not overtly observable, but it has created intense, heated debates among many, in all levels of occupations, governments, and religions. Sexual orientation includes sexual attraction toward members of the same or opposite sex, and or bisexual relations. Along with the six primary characteristics, Pfieffer & Company also include a set of secondary dimensions as well. The secondary dimensions of diversity, those characteristics that one acquires throughout their lifetime, have a tremendous impact on our lives, from birth until death. These traits affect our world view and are somewhat shaped through our experiences, therefore it is said they are somewhat within our control. Many of the characteristics are picked up in our childhood years. The seven secondary dimensions are:
Education: This includes the formal and informal teachings we have been exposed to and the training we have received. The common thread of thought has been, if you do not go to college, or attain a higher education or skill, you are likely to be without a job, or in one which pays substantially less. Robert Reich notes that technological advances have turned previously low-skilled jobs into high-skilled jobs and have created new high-skilled occupations. He also asserts that ?workers without skills . . . find their options shrinking. More than ever before, “what you earn depends on what you learn? (Reich, 42). Income: This is the economic conditions in which you were raised and your present economic status as well (this is closely related to geographic location). Geographic Location: This is the location(s) in which you were raised or spent a significant part of your life, including the type of community, urban or rural. This dimension is closely related to the income dimension in peoples? perceptions or stereotyping of others. For example, sociologist Joleen Kerschenmann and Kathryn Neckerman discovered in their interviews with employers in Chicago, that many associated race with inner-city schools, poor education, inadequate work skills, and insufficient commitment to work ethic (Kantor, 233). Marital Status: Certain perceptions exist concerning one?s marital status. If your married, you?re considered stable, yet immobile. The single or divorced individual, on the other hand, is considered unstable, yet has mobility. Both have their advantages and disadvantages, depending on the job one seeks (Rowe, 1). Parental Status: This dimension concerns those that have children, and the way in which they raise those children (single parent, married, etc). The burden in today?s society seems to place the most burdens on women in the workplace. Women are more likely to be the ones taking care of dependents; but, for minority men and women, who unlike most white women, come from families without the financial resources to help them, so their burden is likely to be even greater (Rowe, 2). In a matter of decades, society has undergone a profound transformation in this category, particularly so in the workplace. For example, from roughly 1960 to the late 1980s, the percentage of all married mothers in the workforce rose from 28 percent to 65 percent, and the number of minor children living with one parent rose from 9 percent to nearly 25 percent. Religious Beliefs: This is the fundamental teachings you have received about deities, and your internalized experiences from formal or informal religious practices. Religious freedom in America is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the Constitution, but those freedoms are under constant stress. Religion speaks to the very core of who we are. Our most profound convictions also spawn our deepest differences (Eck, 5-11). It should be considered an important aspect of education to study world religions. It is important to educate people to understand that we cannot afford the potential waste of talent that prejudice and other negatives have caused. Strong leadership is built around a commitment to diversity as a strength, rather than a weakness (Yates). Another author who has developed a way to capitalize on the benefits of work diversity in organizations is Taylor Cox, Jr. His framework describes six dimensions that were adapted from Milton Gordon?s societal-integration model. Cox, Jr. named his framework the ?cultural-integration? model which encourages integration of culturally different groups. His framework consists of the following six dimensions: Acculturation: This is the way that two groups harmonize together and resolve differences. It is primarily concerned with the integration of each individual culture that exists in various groups. Three methods can facilitate this. The assimilation process is the act of adopting a set of values that is most prominent in the organization. In this process, one takes on the values and norms of another culture, and leaves their own behind. The pluralism process consists of adopting values and norms from each other. The third process, cultural separatism, exists with very little adaptation by either side (Cox, Jr. 353-366). Structural Integration: When an organization takes a look into the cultural mix, levels, and various workgroups, and tries to create an environment where all can co-exist. This would create a presence of the various cultural groups within one organization, with very little integration by any one party. Information Integration: This concept identifies the valuable work-related contacts made outside the work setting. This informal network includes activities which would involve minority-culture members for social integration (Cox, Jr., 353-366). Cultural Biases: This concept consists of two bases, prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice breeds when negative attitudes exist and can cause organizations to place people at a disadvantage. When practiced by a major group, its impact is far worse than when practiced by minority culture members. Discrimination, which is brought about by one?s prejudices, is the hostile, observable actions taken by certain members of the organization. Organizational Identification: This occurs on an individual level. An individual will identify and define one?s self within their own organization. Depending on the culture, levels of identity can be seen in the members? behavior. Inter-group conflict: This is the inter-group conflict that is referred to as ?levels of culture-group-based tensions and interpersonal friction?. Inter-group conflict can actually be an asset in an organization until increased differences occur. When this happens, between minority-group members with others, there follows a reduction of cohesiveness and communication (Cox, Jr.).
A third author who presents her own organizational theory, Joan Acker, describes gender processes in organizations. The term gender processes ?means the advantage and disadvantage, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are patterned through, and in terms of, a distinction between male and female, masculine and feminine. Social norms and folkways of past traditions find their way into the organization? (Acker, 1990).
Organizations are structured and designed by the dominant groups, usually the white male, to fit their own needs. Gender processes have to include race and class of women, because white males are usually at the top level of the organization. Male dominance has become ingrained in, and perpetuated by, societal norms; it is strongly traditional and patriarchal. Along these same lines is the gender-neutral organization. Although organizations can no longer say that women should apply only for specific jobs, the thought and biases of these past actions remain. Gender processes involve symbols, images, and forms of consciousness that justify, and very rarely prevent, gender diversions. Top level people are perceived as strong, aggressive, rational, and competitive. Western cultures have developed the male to fit nicely into this role. From the time they are born, they are taught certain learned behavioral male traits such as; bravery, aggressiveness, rationality, and indepen! dence. Women, on the other hand, are taught or perceived to be weaker, irrational, and anti-competitive. For generations, women have been trying to change this stereotypical image that has held them down in the workforce for years. This attitude has cost organizations talent and creativity at all levels (Acker). Gender has a third process which has to do with interactions such as women to women, women to men, and men to men, that promote the action of dominance and subordination. This attitude of these various relations sometimes creates exclusions of some individuals and alliances with others. Until we can look at one another in a gender-neutral way, this has a tendency to interfere in our various work settings. Her fourth process of gendering consists of the mental maps people tend to build on their organizational environment as they acquire an understanding of how the company works. From here, one learns how to get ahead. This sometimes includes sexual power games. Gender neutrality does not work and society cannot expect to exclude one?s genetic make up. Unfortunately, this tends to develop a gender substructure within the organization and in society, again holding women?s capabilities below those of men (Acker). Two other theorists that encompass the previous principles and dimensions, are David Thomas and Robin Ely, of the Harvard Business School. They also provide a framework that takes into consideration the classical, human resource, political, and symbolic views of diversity. Their theory creates a change in paradigm which promotes integration as the new way to manage diversity. They believe that the influence of race, gender, ethnicity, age, and other dimensions described previously can be realized through two perspectives that have guided diversity programs. One perspective, the ?discrimination-and-fairness paradigm? resembles the old classical view. The second perspective, the ?access-legitimacy-paradigm? best parallels the human resource view (Thomas, Ely). Thomas and Ely?s perspective on diversity should be understood as the ?varied perspectives and approaches to work? that people from different groups bring. The perspectives are called paradigms. The historic way of examining diversity is what the two men describe as the discrimination-and-fairness paradigm. It is a narrower view of the Federal Equal Employment Opportunity requirements. An excellent example of this structure would be the military, with their bureaucratic and structured, control and reward mechanisms. The paradigm?s basis of logic is as follows: ?Prejudice has kept members of certain demographic groups out of organizations such as ours. As a matter of fairness, and to comply with federal mandates, we need to work toward restructuring the makeup of our organization to let it more closely reflect that of society. We need managerial processes that ensure all employees are treated equally and with respect, and that they are not given unfair advantage over others.?
The operation of this paradigm treats everyone the same. The organization would conduct itself as though everyone was of the same race, gender, nationality, physical ability, and so on. The employee must assimilate and comply with organizational structure, strategy, attitudes, and culture. The discrimination-and fairness-paradigm does not understand and investigate people?s differences or potential, and is totally blind to prejudice and discrimination. As Acker?s theory suggests, this is a gender-neutral paradigm.
Thomas and Ely believe that the access-and-legitimacy paradigm has become the trend for the rational of human diversity. This paradigm resembles the political, the symbolic, and the human-side frames of the companies that emerged. It was developed as a base to celebrate differences and encourage acceptance of racial, sexual, and ethnic distinctness. The fundamental purpose of this paradigm can be expressed this way: ?We are living in an increasingly multicultural country, and new ethnic groups are quickly gaining consumer power. Our company needs a greater demographically diverse workforce to help us gain access to these differentiated segments. We need employees with multilingual skills in order to understand and serve our customers better, and to gain legitimacy with them. Diversity isn?t just fair; it makes business sense.?
This paradigm suggests that while organizations go after a niche, the access-and- legitimacy organization emphasizes the role of cultural differences, but does not examine and understand how these differences actually help to get jobs accomplished. These organizations operate in the best interest of the company, rather than the welfare of the employees. This often leads individuals to feel exploited and restricted from functioning at their highest levels (Thomas, Ely).
Thomas and Ely describe another paradigm that they term the new emerging paradigm. This paradigm connects diversity to work perspective. It also resembles Cox, Jr?s integration framework, Acker?s theory, and the diagram of the fourteen dimensions used by Pfeiffer and Company. This new paradigm ?recognizes that employees frequently make decisions and choices at work that draw upon their cultural background – choices made because of their identity or group affiliations?. The companies? viewpoint is to incorporate the employees? perspectives into their jobs. Multicultural racial groups handle this by trying to enhance the companies? work by rethinking certain tasks and by redefining markets, products, strategies, missions, business practices, and organizational culture itself. Thomas and Ely describe this shift as the ?learning-and-effectiveness paradigm?, in which companies and workers actually become connected and dig into the benefits of diversity (Thomas, Ely) . This paradigm goes beyond many others in that it over-extends into assimilation. The idea of this paradigm is to achieve a demographically representative work force where everyone is treated exactly the same. The access-and-legitimacy paradigm can be described as over-extending itself into uniting differentiation. In all actuality, it is trying to place different individuals where their predestined demographic characteristics would correspond with those of constituents and markets. In contrast, the learning-and-effectiveness paradigm also extends into the theme of integration. ?This model helps the organization internalize differences among employees so that it learns and grows because of them?. Ultimately, individuals can say they are ?all? on one team with their differences, not in conflict in spite of them. One must understand that it is never an easy task to develop a certain diversity paradigm, or to change from an existing one that doesn?t work. There are several preconditions that should exist, they are: