Some researchers have raised questions about the relationships among self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and intentions in situations in which performing a behavior may lead to involuntary aversive reactions such as fear, pain, or discomfort (Baker & Kirsch, 1991). Fear and pain expectancies are response expectancies- beliefs about one??s own nonvolitional reactions to events- which are a type of outcome expectancy (Kirsch, 1985b). Thus, in situations that involve pain or fear, self-efficacy appears to be determined partly by outcome expectancies (e.g., Baker & Kirsch, 1991).
When people anticipate aversive outcomes (e.g., fear or pain) and are not willing to engage in behavior that may produce those outcomes, their linguistic habit is to say that they cannot perform the behavior (low self-efficacy) rather than they will not perform it. Measures of willingness may simply be measures of intention (Baker & Kirsch, 1991), as employed in the theory of reasoned action (ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, in situations in which fear or pain is anticipated, measures of perceived ability to perform the behavior (self-efficacy) may be measures of intention to perform the behavior. This intention is determined primarily by the strength of the person??s pain or fear expectancies. The mislabeling of intention and perceived ability may occur in other important domains in which people are asked to engage in behaviors that may lead to immediate discomfort, such as dieting, exercising, or violating personal norms (Baker & Kirsch, 1991). In each of these situations, ??self-efficacy??-what people say they can and cannot do-may be determined largely by outcome expectancies-the anticipation of both positive and aversive consequences (Baker & Kirsch, 1991)
On the other hand, there is compelling evidence that avoidance behavior is determined by self-efficacy, not by anticipated anxiety, and that anticipated anxiety is determined by perceived self-efficacy (Bandura, 1992).E. OUTCOME VALUERecent research indicates that the notion of outcome value and its relationship to satisfaction with outcomes is not as simple as once was believed. Hsee and Abelson (1991) proposed that actual value or position relation-how positive or negative an outcome is rated on a satisfaction/dissatisfaction scale- is only one aspect of outcome value and probably not the most important aspect. Hsee and Abelson (1991) also proposed that displacement relation and velocity relation are important determinants of satisfaction with outcomes. Displacement relation is ??the directional distance (i.e., displacement) between the original (reference) outcome position and the position after a change??. Satisfaction (dissatisfaction) depends on how much more (less) an outcome departs from its original position in a positive direction. Velocity relation is the ??rate (i.e., velocity) at which the outcome is changing??. Satisfaction is greater (less) when the velocity is more (less) positive.F. RELATED CONCEPTS OF MASTERY, CONTROL, AND COMPETENCE
An understanding and appreciation of self-efficacy theory and the research bearing on it are enhanced by understanding the relationships between self-efficacy and other concepts concerned with mastery and efficacy. Each of these can be viewed as social cognitive concepts because each deals with people??s thoughts, beliefs, motives, explanations, and predictions about themselves and other people.· Locus of Control
Locus of control of reinforcement (Rotter,1990) is ??the degree to which persons expect that a reinforcement or an outcome of their behavior is contingent on their own behavior or personal characterisitics versus the degree to which persons expect that the reinforcement of outcome is a function of chance, luck, or fate, is under the control of powerful others, or is simply unpredictable?? (Rotter, 1990,p. 489). Thus, locus of control is the general belief that one??s behavior can have an impact on the environment and that one is capable of controlling outcomes through one??s own behavior. Although it sounds similar to self-efficacy expectancy, locus of control is a generalized outcome expectancy because it is concerned with the extent to which one believes one??s behavior controls outcomes, not confidence in one??s ability to perform certain behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Empirical evidence supports making this distinction between self-efficacy and locus of control (Smith, 1989; Taylor & Popma, 1990).· Probability of Success
McClelland (1985) has proposed a general behavior theory that considers motivation, incentive value, and probability of success to be the major determinants of achievement-related behavior and affiliative acts. Probability of success ??is determined not only by actual skill but also by the individual??s beliefs about the efficacy of making a response that may be somewhat independent of the individual??s skill in making it: McClelland makes a distinction between beliefs about ??efficacy of effort in bringing about a consequence through a particular response in a given situation?? and ??generalized confidence a person has that he or she can bring about outcomes through instrumental activities of any kind??. A belief about ??efficacy of effort?? seems similar to outcome expectancy. Although, McClelland suggested that ??generalized confidence?? is nearly the same as a self-efficacy expectancy, His definition of generalized confidence is more similar to Rotter??s definition of locus of control, which is a kind of generalized outcome expectancy, than to Bandura??s definition of self-efficacy expectancy, which is a belief about one??s ability to perform behaviors or execute behavioral strategies.· Causal Attributions and Explanatory Style
Theory and research on explanatory style or attributional style also are concerned with beliefs about personal control and effectiveness (e.g., Peterson & Stunkard, 1992). Most of this work has been directed toward understanding the effect of explanations for negative life events on perceived helplessness and depression (Brewin, 1985, Robins, 1988). Helplessness beliefs are closely related to self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectancies. Explanations or attributions, however, are beliefs about the causes of events that have already occurred; self-efficacy and outcome expectancy are beliefs about possible future events. The relationship between causal attributions or explanations and self-efficacy and outcome expectancies is unclear, as are the ways attributions, self-efficacy, and outcome expectancies interact to influence behavior and affect. For example, some theories propose the attributions influence affect and behavior indirectly via their influence on expectancies. Because self-efficacy is influenced by past success or failure and observations of the behavior of others, attributions made about these actual and vicarious experiences probably influence self-efficacy. In addition, self-efficacy may mediate the relationship between attributions and performance (Forstering, 1986). Conversely, self-efficacy may influence attributions (e.g., Alden, 1986; Bandura, 1992). A person with low self-efficacy for a performance domain may be more likely to attribute failure in that domain to lack of ability than to lack of effort; the opposite pattern may hold for those with high self-efficacy (Bandura, 1992).
Schiaffino and Revenson (1992) provided evidence that causal attributions and self-efficacy interact in influencing depression and physical disability. Self-efficacy was negatively related to depression for subjects who made internal, stable, global attributions for RA flare-ups; however, self-efficacy had little relationship to depression for subjects who made external, unstable, specific attributions for flare-ups. The pattern of relationships was different for physical disability. For subjects who made internal, stable, global attributions, self-efficacy was (surprisingly) positively related to disability; but, for subjects who made external, unstable, specific attributions, self-efficacy and disability were negatively related. Clearly, these relationships require further exploration.
4). SELF EFFICACY IN EDUCATIONBandura (1977) hypothesized that self-efficacy affects choice of activities, effort, and persistence. Compared with students who doubt their learning capabilities, those with high self-efficacy for accomplishing a task participate more readily, work harder, and persist longer when they encounter difficulties.
Learners acquire information to appraise self-efficacy from their performance accomplishments, vicarious (observational) experiences, forms of persuasion, and physiological reactions. Students?? own performances offer them reliable guides for assessing their self-efficacy. Successes raise self-efficacy and failures lower it, but once a strong sense of self-efficacy is developed, a failure may not have much impact (Bandura, 1986).
Learners also acquire self-efficacy information from knowledge of others through classroom social comparisons. Similar others offer the best basis for comparison. Students who observe similar peers perform a task are apt to believe that they, too, are capable of accomplishing it. Information acquired vicariously typically has a weaker effect on self-efficacy than performance-based information; the former effect easily can be negated by subsequent failures.
Students often receive persuasive information from teachers and parents that they are capable of performing a task (e.g., ??You can do this??). Positive feedback enhances self-efficacy, but this increase will be temporary if subsequent efforts turn out poorly. Students also acquire efficacy information from physiological reactions (e.g., heart rate, sweating). Symptoms signaling anxiety might be interpreted to mean that one lacks skills.
Information acquired from these sources does not automatically influence self-efficacy; rather, it is cognitively appraised (Bandura, 1986). In appraising efficacy, learners weigh and combine their perceptions of their ability, the difficulty of the task, the amount of effort expended, the amount of external assistance received, the number and pattern of successes and failures, the perceived similarity to models, and persuader credibility (Schunk, 1989b).
Self-efficacy is not the only influence in educational settings. Achievement behavior also depends on knowledge and skills, outcome expectations, and the perceived value of outcomes (Schunk, 1989b). high self-efficacy does not produce competent performances when requisite knowledge and skills are lacking. Outcome expectations, or beliefs concerning the probable outcomes of actions, are important because students strive for positive outcomes. Perceived value of outcomes refers to how much learners desire certain outcomes relative to others. Learners are motivated to act in ways that they believe will result in outcomes they value.
Some school activities involve performance of previously learned skills, but much time is spent acquiring new knowledge, skills, and strategies. At the start of a learning activity, students differ in their self-efficacy for acquiring the new material as a result of prior experiences and aptitudes (abilities, attitudes). As students work on the task, personal factors (e.g., goal setting, information processing) and situational factors (e.g., rewards, teachers?? feedback) provide cues that signal how well they are learning and which they use to assess self-efficacy for further learning. Motivation is enhanced when students perceive they are making progress. Higher motivation and self-efficacy promote task engagement and skill acquisition (Schunk, 1989a).5). CONCLUDING COMMENTSself-directed learning is consistent with a collaborative constructivist view of learning that encourages students to approach learning in a deep and meaningful manner. Meaningful learning outcomes would be very difficult to achieve if students were not self-directed in their learning. Taking responsibility to construct personal meaning is the essence of self-directed learning. To be a self-directed learner is to be a critical thinker.
More specifically, some research directions would be: explore the theoretical connections between self-direction and critical thinking; map the relationship between responsibility(mentoring) and control(management) factors with regard to cognitive development; articulate specific strategies associated with management and monitoring issues; understand the influence of excessive workload, prescribed content and evaluation on self-direction and critical thinking; and, study the effect of mediated learning networks on self0direction and critical thinking. These are but a few possibilities among many worthwhile research initiatives.
Another area of research that may prove valuable in understanding the cognitive and motivational dimensions of self-directed learning is the literature on self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learning has emerged over the last two decades as a result of social learning research initiatives (Zimmerman, 1989). In contrast to self-directed learning, self-regulated learning emerged from research on self-efficacy (perceived proficiency) and motivation. The current emphasis of self-regulated learning on cognitive and motivation strategies (Winne, 1995) makes it a potential resource for the development of the psychological dimensions of self-directed learning. Furthermore, it has been argued that self-regulation has a beneficial effect on academic outcomes.
Self-efficacy theory and research have contributed to the study of perceived control and competence in at least three was. First, self-efficacy theory emphasizes the distinction between three important variables concerned with personal control and motivation-self-efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and outcome value. Second, self-efficacy theory emphasizes the measurement of these variables, especially self-efficacy, with a greater degree of behavioral and situational specificity than has been the case in other theories and bodies of research. Third, and most important, self-efficacy theory provides a model to explain the origin and effects of perceptions of perceived control and guidelines for changing human behavior and enhancing adjustment and adaptation.
There are several important factors affecting self-efficacy; Goal setting: Effects of goal setting on self-efficacy have been obtained in several studies. Bandura and Schunk (1981) found that during subtraction instruction, providing children with a proximal goal heightened self-efficacy, as well as motivation (rate of problem solving) and skill acquisition, more than did giving them a distant goal or a general goal. Heightened self-efficacy sustains motivation and promotes learning.
Information processing; Researchers have investigated how the demands of cognitively processing academic material influences self-efficacy. Students who believe they will experience great difficulty comprehending material are apt to have low self-efficacy for learning it, whereas those who feel capable of handling the information-processing demands should feel efficacious (Schunk, 1989b). Higher self-efficacy leads students to perform those activities that they believe will produce learning. As students work on tasks, they derive information about how well they are learning. The perception that they are comprehending material enhances self-efficacy and motivation. Self-efficacy correlates positively with motivation to employ learning strategies.
Models: students acquire much self-efficacy information vicariously from peers and teachers. Modeled displays can convey to observers that they are capable and can motivate them to attempt the task; observed failures may lower students?? self-efficacy and dissuade them from working and peer models increased self-efficacy and skill better than the teacher model or no model.
Feedback: theory and research support the idea that feedback can affect self-efficacy in important ways. Early success signal high learning ability; ability feedback for early successes can enhance self-efficacy for learning. Effort feedback for early successes should be credible with students who have to work hard to succeed. Each type of feedback promoted self-efficacy, motivation, and skill better than no feedback. Performance feedback, indicating that students are making progress in learning, should raise self-efficacy, motivation, and achievement, especially when students cannot reliably determine progress on their own. Schunk (1983d) found that self-monitoring of subtraction progress provided reliable performance feedback and promoted self-efficacy and achievement.
Rewards: rewards enhance self-efficacy when they are linked with students?? accomplishments and convey to students that they have made progress in learning. Rewards are informative and motivating. As students work on tasks, they learn which actions result in positive outcomes (successes, teacher praise, high grades). Such information guides future actions. Anticipation of desirable outcomes motivates students to persist.
In conclusion, self-direction and self-efficacy are seen as a necessary process for achieving worthwhile and meaningful educational outcomes. They are associated with initiating learning goals, maintaining intention, and striving for quality outcomes. Self-direction and Self-efficacy are seen as essential if students are to achieve
Dewey??s ultimate educational goal of becoming continuous learners and possessing the capacity for further educational growth. Learning interest and opportunities for control promote self-direction and continued learning opportunities for self-directed learning, in turn, enhance metacognitive awareness and create the conditions where students learn how to learn. Even though adult learners who pursue self-directed learning, to the something important for themselves in this changing society, if they do not have high self-efficacy, they may not achieve their goals which they want to reach.
As for adult learners and educators, people would try to keep the great balance between self-directedness and self-efficacy to achieve the highest goal by themselves.
In the future research, we have to focus on the relationship between self-directedness and self-efficacy to improve adult learners?? ability in adult education parts.